Ube  IRural  /Manuals 

EDITED  BY  L.  H.  BAILEY 


MANUAL  OF 
TROPICAL  AND   SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 


Ube  IRural  Manuals 

EDITED  BY  L.  H.  BAILEY 


MANUAL  OF  GARDENING  —  Bailey 

MANUAL  OF  FARM  ANIMALS  —  Harper 

FARM  AND  GARDEN  RULE-BOOK  —  Bailey 

MANUAL  OF  FRUIT  INSECTS  —  Slingerland  and  Crosby 

MANUAL  OF  WEEDS  —  Georgia 

THE  PRUNING-MANUAL  —  Bailey 

MANUAL  OF  FRUIT  DISEASES  —  Hester  and  Whetzel 

MANUAL  OF  MILK  PRODUCTS  —  Stocking 

MANUAL    OF   VEGETABLE-GARDEN    INSECTS  —  Crosby 

and  Leonard 

MANUAL  OF  TREE  DISEASES  —  Ranltin 
MANUAL  OF  HOME-MAKING  —  Van  Rensselaer,  Rose, 

and  Canon 

MANUAL    OF    AMERICAN    GRAPE-GROWING  —  Hedrick 
THE  NURSERY-MANUAL  —  Bailey 
MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS  — 

Popenoe 


PLATE  I.  The  Nimlioh  avocado. 


MANUAL  OF 

TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL 
FRUITS 

EXCLUDING    THE    BANANA,    COCONUT, 

PINEAPPLE,   CITRUS  FRUITS, 

OLIVE,  AND  FIG 


BY 

WILSON   POPENOE 

AGRICULTURAL  EXPLORER,  UNITED  STATES 
DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 


.  '*•>  ** 

'!,»  ?* 


Nefa 

THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1920 

Ml  righto  reserved 


COPYRIGHT,  1920, 
BY  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.    Published  July,  1920. 


Nortoooti  Jprrss 

J.  S.  Gushing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

MY  intention  in  preparing  the  present  work  has  been  to 
bring  together,  for  the  guidance  of  those  who  live  in  the  tropical 
and  subtropical  regions  of  the  globe,  the  available  information 
concerning  the  principal  fruits  cultivated,  or  which  may  be 
cultivated,  in  those  regions.  The  banana,  the  coconut,  the 
pineapple,  the  citrus  fruits,  the  olive,  and  the  fig  are  not  in- 
cluded, however,  since  these  have  been  fully  treated  by  other 
writers.  Nor  have  I  attempted  to  describe  all  of  the  fruit- 
bearing  plants  of  the  tropics :  rather  has  it  been  my  aim  to 
concentrate  on  those  which  most  seem  to  merit  extensive 
cultivation,  the  culture  of  many  of  which  is  as  yet  little  under- 
stood. No  work  in  the  English  language  has  attempted  to 
cover  this  subject,  and  the  few  which  have  appeared  in  other 
languages  do  not  contain  the  data  concerning  propagation 
and  cultural  practices  which  would  make  them  useful  to  horti- 
culturists. Unfortunately,  as  regards  many  of  the  less-known 
fruits,  few  data  are  available,  but  concerning  the  more  im- 
portant ones  the  researches  of  such  workers  as  E.  Bonavia, 
A.  C.  Hartless,  and  William  Burns  in  India,  H.  A.  Van  Her- 
mann, F.  S.  Earle,  and  C.  F.  Kinman  in  the  West  Indies, 
George  B.  Cellon,  Edward  Simmonds,  W.  J.  Krome,  P.  H. 
Rolfs,  and  Reasoner  Brothers  in  southern  Florida,  F.  Franceschi 
(E.  O.  Fenzi)  and  Ira  J.  Condit  in  California,  J.  E.  Higgins 
and  his  associates  in  Hawaii,  P.  J.  Wester  in  the  Philippines, 
and  L.  Trabut  in  the  Mediterranean  region,  have  brought  to 
light  much  valuable  information.  The  work  of  such  men  as 
G.  N.  Collins,  O.  F.  Cook,  David  Fairchild,  W.  E.  Safford, 
and  Walter  T.  Swingle,  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry, 


423708 


VI  PREFACE 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  has  also  added 
materially  to  our  knowledge  of  the  subject. 

References  throughout  the  book  indicate  the  extent  of  my 
indebtedness  to  these  and  other  investigators.  In  order  that 
the  work  may  reflect  as  fully  as  possible  the  total  knowledge 
at  present  available  on  any  topic,  I  have  drawn  freely  from 
all  sources,  exercising,  at  the  same  time,  all  possible  care  to 
avoid  perpetuating  the  more  than  numerous  errors  with  which 
the  literature  of  tropical  fruits  is  burdened. 

For  the  past  seven  years,  during  a  large  part  of  which  time 
I  have  traveled  as  Agricultural  Explorer  for  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  I  have  had  exceptional  oppor- 
tunities for  gathering,  at  first  hand,  information  for  this  work. 
In  the  course  of  my  journeys  I  have  visited  Hawaii,  Japan,  the 
Philippines,  the  Straits  Settlements,  India,  Arabia,  North 
Africa,  Mexico,  Guatemala,  the  West  Indies,  and  Brazil. 
This  field  work  has  alternated  with  and  been  supplemented 
by  practical  experience  with  the  cultural  problems  of  tropical 
and  subtropical  fruit-growing  in  California  and  Florida.  To 
those  familiar  with  the  thorough  and  exhaustive  treatises 
which  have  been  published  on  the  northern  fruits,  however, 
the  present  work  will  no  doubt  appear  superficial  in  character. 
Necessarily  it  is  so.  Present  knowledge  of  the  greater  number 
of  tropical  fruits  is  superficial,  and  many  years  must  pass  be- 
fore it  will  be  possible  for  a  thoroughly  comprehensive  treatise 
to  be  offered  on  any  one  of  the  species  here  considered,  except- 
ing possibly  the  date. 

I  have  been  assisted  and  encouraged  in  the  preparation  of 
this  work  by  many  persons.  It  is  a  particular  pleasure  to 
acknowledge  my  indebtedness  to  Charles  Fuller  Baker,  now 
Dean  of  the  College  of  Agriculture,  University  of  the  Philip- 
pines, under  whose  guidance  I  first  took  up  work  in  tropical 
pomology,  and  whose  boundless  enthusiasm  for  tropical  plants 
has  been  a  constant  inspiration  to  me;  to  F.  Franceschi, 


PREFACE  vii 

formerly  of  Santa  Barbara,  California,  who  was  one  of  the 
pioneers  in  the  introduction  and  cultivation  of  tropical  fruits 
in  California ;  and  above  all,  to  my  present  chief,  David  Fair- 
child,  and  my  colleagues  in  the  Office  of  Foreign  Seed  and 
Plant  Introduction  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry.  To  Dr. 
Fairchild  America  is  indebted  for  many  choice  varieties  of 
the  mango,  the  date,  and  other  tropical  fruits  which  are  now 
cultivated  in  the  United  States,  and  for  his  assistance  and 
encouragement  in  my  own  investigations  I  owe  him  a  debt  of 
gratitude  which  I  can  never  pay. 

W.  J.  Krome  of  Homestead,  Florida,  has  criticized  the 
chapters  on  the  avocado  and  mango,  and  added  many  notes 
of  interest  and  value  to  the  former.  W.  E.  Safford  of  the 
Bureau,  of  Plant  Industry  has  revised  the  chapter  on  the  an- 
nonaceous  fruits,  and  Henry  Pittier  of  the  same  Bureau  that 
on  the  sapotaceous  fruits.  To  my  brother,  Paul  Popenoe, 
I  am  indebted  for  most  of  the  chapter  on  the  date.  H.  H. 
Hume  of  Florida  has  criticized  the  chapter  on  the  kaki.  J.  N. 
Rose  of  the  United  States  National  Museum  has  furnished  most 
of  the  data  on  the  tuna  and  pitaya.  Sidney  F.  Blake  of  the 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  has  been  of  much  assistance  on 
matters  of  botanical  nomenclature.  J.  Smeaton  Chase  of 
Palm  Springs,  California,  has  rendered  valuable  aid  in  the 
preparation  of  the  manuscript.  To  all  of  these  men  I  express 
my  sincere  appreciation  of  their  help. 

The  line  drawings  with  which  this  work  is  illustrated  have 
been  made  by  Mrs.  R.  E.  Gamble  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant  In- 
dustry. Nearly  all  of  them,  as  well  as  most  of  the  half-tone 
plates,  are  from  my  own  photographs ;  a  few  are  from  photo- 
graphs by  P.  H.  Dorsett  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry. 


WILSON  POPENOE 


WASHINGTON,  D.  C., 

October  1,  1919. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   I 

PAGES 

THE  OUTLOOK  FOB  TROPICAL  FRUIT                    .        .        fc  1-8 

CHAPTER   II 

THE  AVOCADO 9-78 

Botanical  description 11-14 

History  and  distribution 14-  20 

Composition  and  uses  of  the  fruit           ....  20-  23 

Climate  and  soil .23-30 

Cultivation 30-40 

Tillage,  mulching  and  cover-crops  ....  32-  33 

Fertilizer 33-36 

Irrigation 36-38 

Pruning 38-40 

Propagation 40-  52 

Stock  plants 41-43 

Essential  features  of  bud  propagation     .         .         .  43-  44 

Budding 44-49 

Grafting 49-50 

Top-working  old  trees 50-  52 

The  crop 52-54 

Season 54-56 

Picking,  packing,  and  marketing 56-  58 

Pests  and  diseases           .......  58-  65 

Races  and  varieties 65-  78 

West  Indian  race 69-  71 

Guatemalan  race 71-76 

Mexican  race 76-  78 

Hybrids.         ,        ...        .        .        .        .        .  78 

CHAPTER   III 

THE  MANGO 79-145 

Botanical  description     .        .        »        .         • 

History  and  distribution        .         .         .        .         .         .  84-  92 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


Composition  and  uses  of  the  fruit 
Climate  and  soil     . 

Cultivation 

Propagation 

The  mango  flower  and  its  pollination 

The  crop 

Pests  and  diseases 
Races  and  varieties 

Mulgoba  group 

Alphonse  group 

Sandersha  group     . 

Cambodiana  group 


PAGES 

92-  95 
95-100 
101-107 
107-118 
118-122 
122-128 
128-132 
132-145 
138-140 
140-143 
143-144 
144-145 


CHAPTER   IV 


RELATIVES  OF  THE  MANGO 
The  cashew    . 
The  imbu 
The  ambarella 
The  red  mombin    . 
The  yellow  mombin 


146-160 
146-152 
152-154 
155-157 
157-159 
159-160 


CHAPTER   V 


THE  ANNONACEOUS  FRUITS 
The  cherimoya 

Cultivation     . 

Propagation    . 

The  crop 

Pests  and  diseases   . 

Varieties 
The  sugar-apple 
The  soursop   . 
The  bullock's-heart 
The  ilama      .         . 
Minor  annonaceous  fruits 

Pond-apple     . 

Wild  cherimoya 

Mountain  soursop  . 

Soncoya 

Posh-t6  . 

Biriba 


161-195 
161-177 
169-171 
171-174 
174-175 

175 

175-177 
177-182 
182-186 
186-188 
188-191 
191-195 
191-192 

192 
192-193 

193 

193-194 
194-195 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  xi 

CHAPTER   VI 

PAGES 

THE  DATE 196-224 

Cultivation .         .         .         .  202-207 

Propagation  .         .         .         .....         .         .  207-211 

Yield  and  season    .         .      •   „       ^         .         .         .         .  212-213 

Picking  and  packing       .  .         .         .         .         .  213-216 

Pests  and  diseases  .  216-218 

Varieties  and  classification 218-224 

CHAPTER  VII 

THE  PAPAYA  AND  ITS  RELATIVES 225-249 

The  papaya 225-240 

Cultivation 230-233 

Propagation 233-237 

Yield  and  market 237-238 

Pests  and  diseases 238-239 

Seedling  races 239-240 

The  mountain  papaya   .......  240-241 

The  purple  granadilla 241-245 

The  sweet  granadilla 245-246 

The  giant  granadilla 247-249 

CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  LOQUAT  AND  ITS  RELATIVES        .....  250-271 

Theloquat 250-267 

Cultivation 256-259 

Propagation 259-261 

Yield  and  picking 261-262 

Pests  and  diseases 262-264 

Varieties 264-267 

Thecapulin 268-269 

The  manzanilla 269-271 

The  icaco 271 

CHAPTER    IX 

FRUITS  OF  THE  MYRTLE  FAMILY         .         .        .        .        .  272-311 

Theguava      .         .         , 272-279 

The  strawberry  guava 279-283 

Other  guavas          .        .        ...        .        .        .  283-286 

Costa  Rican  guava 283 


Xll 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


Guisaro  . 

Brazilian  guava 

Para  guava     . 
The  pitanga  . 
The  feijoa      . 
The  jaboticaba 
Other  myrtaceous  fruits 

Grumichama  . 

Jambolan 

Rose-apple      .         * 

Pera  do  campo 

Pitomba 

Ohia       . 

Uvalha   . 

Cabelluda       . 

Guabiroba 

Downy  myrtle 


PAGES 

284 

284-285 
285-286 
286-292 
292-299 
299-302 
302-311 
302-304 
304-305 
30&-306 

307 

307-308 
308-309 
309-310 

310 
310-311 

311 


CHAPTER  X 


THE  LITCHI  AND  ITS  RELATIVES 
The  litchi       . 

Cultivation     . 

Propagation    . 

Yield  and  season     . 

Pests  and  diseases  . 

Varieties 

The  longan    .         .        .        . 
The  rambutan 
The  pulasan  . 
The  akee        . 
The  mamoncillo 


312-333 
312-325 
317-321 
321-323 
323-324 
324-325 
325 

325-327 
327-329 
329-330 
330-332 
332-333 


CHAPTER  XI 


THE  SAPOTACEOUS  FRUITS 
The  sapodilla 
The  sapote     . 
The  green  sapote  . 
The  star-apple 
The  canistel  . 
The  abiu 


334-352 
334-340 
340-343 
343-344 
344-347 
347-349 
349-350 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


X1U 


The  yellow  sapote 
The  lucmo 


PAGES 

350-351 
351-352 


CHAPTER  XII 


THE  KAKI  AND  ITS  RELATIVES  . 

The  kaki  or  Japanese  persimmon 

Cultivation     .  « 
Propagation    .         .  . 
Picking  and  shipping 

Pests  and  diseases  .     _  .  ' 

Varieties          .        .  , 

The  black  sapote  .        .  . 

The  mabolo   . 


353-374 
353-370 
357-359 
359-363 
363-365 
365-366 
366-370 
370-373 
373-374 


CHAPTER  XIII 

THE  POMEGRANATE  AND  THE  JUJUBE 
The  pomegranate  .         . 
The  jujube 

CHAPTER   XIV 

THE  MANGOSTEEN  AND  ITS  RELATIVES 
The  mangosteen     .         .         . 

Cultivation    ' 

Propagation    .         .         .         . 

Season  and  enemies  of  the  mangosteen 
The  mamey  . 

The  bakuri    .         ... 
The  bakupari 

CHAPTER  XV 

THE  BREADFRUIT  AND  ITS  RELATIVES 
The  breadfruit       .      '  .         .         ., 

The  jackfruit 

The  marang 


CHAPTER  XVI 


MISCELLANEOUS  FRUITS 
The  durian 


375-389 
375-383 
383-389 


390-405 
390-401 
394-397 
398-400 
400-401 
401^03 
403-104 
405 


406-420 

406-414 

414-419 

420 


421-455 
421-425 


xiv  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGES 

The  santol 426 

The  langsat   .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  426-428 

The  carambola       .         .         .         .    .     .         «         .         .  429-431 

Thebilimbi    .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  431-432 

The  tamarind         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  432-436 

The  carissa    ....     • /.         ....  436-439 

The  ramontchi       .         .         .         ...         .         .  439-441 

The  umkokolo .  441-443 

The  ketembilla       .         .         .    '     .         .         .         .         .  443-445 

The  white  sapote  .         .         .         .         ...         .  445-448 

The  tuna .  448-450 

The  pitaya 451-452 

The  tree-tomato 452-453 

The  genipa 454-455 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 455-457 

INDEX  .         .  459-474 


PLATES 

PLATE  PAGE 

I.     The  Nimlioh  avocado Frontispiece 

II.     Four  or  five  tortillas   (corn  cakes)  and  a  good-sized 
avocado  are  considered  a  good  meal  by  the  Guatemala 

Indians 24 

III.  Avocado-growing  in  the  Mexican  highlands  ...  46 

IV.  Puebla  avocado  tree  producing  its  first  crop  at  two  years 

of  age  ;  the  Fuerte  avocado        .....  68 
V.     Inflorescence  of  the  Alphonse  mango  ;    a  Cuban  mango- 
vender        90 

VI.     The  Sandersha  mango ;  the  ambarella  .         .         .         .110 

VII.     Red  mombins  on  the  tree 132 

VIII.     The  cherimoya  at  its  best ;  the  soursop  and  other  fruits  150 
IX.     The  home  of  the  Fardh  date;    in  the  date  gardens  of 

Basrah 176 

X.     A  date  palm  in  full  production ;    the  purple  granadilla  190 
XI.     A  tropical  substitute  for  the  cantaloupe,  the  papaya ;  a 

papaya  in  bearing 208 

XII.     A  plate  of  fine  loquats 230 

XIII.  The  wild  cherry  of  Central  America  (Prunus  salicifolia)  \ 

the  manzanilla  (Cratcegus  stipulosa)    ....  250 

XIV.  Feijoas  ready  for  gathering 280 

XV.     A  fruiting  jaboticaba  tree 292 

XVI.     Flowers  and  fruits  of  the  rose-apple  (Eugenia  Jambos)  306 

XVII.     The  litchi,  favorite  fruit  of  the  Chinese          .         .         .324 

XVIII.     Foliage  and  fruits  of  the  akee  (Blighia  sapida)       .         .  350 

XIX.     The  sapodilla  (Achras  Sapota) 370 

XX.     The  rambutan  and  other  fruits;     a  basket  of  green 

sapotes 386 

A  young  kaki  tree  in  bearing 400 

A  basket  of  pomegranates ;  the  black  sapote  .         .         .  420 
The    jackfruit    (Artocarpus    integrifolia) ,    the    largest 

tropical  fruit 438 

The  mangosteen ;  the  durian 456 

xv 


MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND 
SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

CHAPTER  I 
THE   OUTLOOK  FOR  TROPICAL  FRUITS 

THE  thickly  peopled  countries  of  the  Temperate  Zone 
must  look  more  and  more  to  the  tropics  to  supplement  their 
own  food  resources,  whether  by  direct  supplies,  made  possible 
in  increasing  measure  by  ever-improving  means  of  trans- 
portation, or  by  furnishing  plants  which  may  be  cultivated  in 
mild-wintered  regions  such  as  California  and  Florida.  Both 
forms  of  contribution  will  be  largely  in  the  item  of  fruits.  As 
examples  of  the  first  class,  the  banana,  because  of  its  immense 
yield  and  quick  production,  has  already  been  exploited  on  a 
large  scale,  and  the  coconut,  through  its  product  copra,  has 
become  an  economic  factor  of  prime  importance;  in  the 
second  (or  rather,  in  both)  the  avocado,  still  a  novelty  but  of 
very  great  possibilities  as  adaptable  to  growth  in  our  own 
country,  is  on  the  verge  of  taking  a  high  place  among  the  food 
crops  contributed  by  the  tropics. 

Many  other  fruits  of  the  Torrid  Zone,  not  all  of  them  so 
important,  yet  all  valuable  in  degree  in  the  dietary  of  the  race, 
must  be  grown  in  ever-increasing  quantities,  not  only  to  supply 
northern  markets,  but  also,  —  and  even  more  important,  - 
to  enable  the  native  populations  of  the  tropics  as  well  as  settlers 
from  the  North  to  obtain  abundantly  and  cheaply  this  most 
wholesome  source  of  human  energy. 
B  1 


2         MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

For,  strange  as  it  may  seem  to  many  who  have  never  lived 
or  traveled  in  the  hot  belts  of  the  earth,  those  lands  come  far 
short  of  conforming  to  that  conventional  idea  of  the  tropics,  as 
regions  where  luscious  fruits  grow  wild  upon  every  tree  and  the 
languorous  native  has  only  to  stretch  forth  his  hand  to  obtain 
his  dinner.  It  is  a  well-attested  fact  that  the  inhabitants  of 
many  tropical  countries  suffer  for  want  of  sufficient  fresh 
fruit ;  and  it  is  also  true  that  much  real  starvation  in  densely 
populated  hot  regions,  India  for  example,  could  be  averted  by 
planting  on  a  wholesale  scale  fruit-trees  such  as  the  avocado, 
whose  product  has  a  relatively  high  food  value. 

The  reason  for  this  scarcity  of  fruits  in  precisely  those 
regions  where,  by  climatic  indications,  one  would  expect  them 
to  be  most  abundant,  is  not  to  be  found  in  any  single  fact, 
but  is,  perhaps,  largely  the  result  of  three  causes :  first,  the 
enervating  effect  of  heat,  which  discourages  man  from  under- 
taking work  which  can  be  avoided;  second,  the  one-sided 
exploitation  of  many  tropical  regions  for  the  production  of 
materials  such  as  rubber  and  cotton,  without  sufficient  regard 
to  supplying  wholesome  foodstuffs  for  those  who  labor  in 
producing  these  articles ;  and  third,  the  long  time  required  by 
tree-fruits  to  yield  returns,  as  compared  with  the  annual  crops 
such  as  corn,  beans,  and  squashes.  This  last  factor  is  par- 
ticularly disastrous  where  primitive  races  of  people  are  con- 
cerned, for  such  almost  invariably  devote  their  attention  in  the 
main  to  crops  which  give  quick  returns,  —  the  very  crops  which 
must  depend  absolutely  on  the  season's  rainfall. 

It  is,  indeed,  only  as  scattered,  often  neglected,  specimens 
in  dooryards  and  around  cultivated  fields  that  many  of  the 
tropical  fruit-trees  exist.  Others,  such  as  the  mango  and  the 
breadfruit,  are  given  more  attention,  yet  they  rarely  receive 
more  than  a  fraction  of  the  solicitous  care  which  northerners 
lavish  on  their  apples,  peaches,  and  pears. 

With  the  exception  of  a  few  species,  such  as  the  banana 


THE  OUTLOOK  FOR   TROPICAL  FRUITS  3 

and  the  coconut,  the  tropical  fruits  have  received  scientific 
attention  only  when  their  culture  has  been  brought  northward 
to  the  extreme  limit  of  their  zone,  as,  in  the  case  of  certain  of 
them,  it  has  been  in  California  and  Florida.  Even  here  their 
study  and  improvement  have  only  been  undertaken  in  very 
recent  years ;  many  species,  in  fact,  are  still  in  the  condition  of 
wild  plants,  so  that  it  is  no  wonder  their  fruits  are  sometimes 
looked  on  by  northern  horticulturists  as  almost  without  value. 
The  case  is  well  put  by  Hartwig,  who  writes,  in  his  work  "  The 
Tropical  World": 

"It  may  easily  be  imagined  that  the  tropical  sun,  which 
distills  so  many  costly  juices  and  fiery  spices  in  indescribable 
multiplicity  and  abundance,  must  also  produce  a  variety  of 
fruits.  But  man  has  yet  done  little  to  improve  by  care  and  art 
these  gifts  of  Nature,  and,  with  rare  exceptions,  the  delicious 
flavor  for  which  our  native  fruits  are  indebted  to  centuries  of 
cultivation,  is  found  wanting  in  those  of  the  torrid  zone.  In 
our  gardens  Pomona  appears  in  the  refined  garb  of  civilization, 
while  in  the  tropics  she  still  shows  herself  as  a  savage  beauty, 
requiring  the  aid  of  culture  for  the  full  development  of  her 
attractions." 

The  exceptions  to  this  condition,  however,  are  notable,  and 
scarcely  so  rare  as  Hartwig  and  others  have  believed.  The 
mango,  in  its  finer  Indian  varieties,  offers  an  example  of  im- 
provement through  selection  and  vegetative  propagation  which 
equals  that  of  the  peach,  if  indeed  the  advance  from  wild  to 
cultivated  forms  has  not  been  greater  in  the  former  than  in  the 
latter  fruit.  Those  who  have  tasted  the  luscious  Pairi  mango 
of  Bombay,  or  the  Mulgoba  as  now  grown  in  Florida,  will 
recognize  the  probable  accuracy  of  this  statement. 

Many  other  tropical  fruits  might  be  mentioned  which 
compare  favorably  with  the  best  products  of  high  cultivation  in 
the  Temperate  Zone.  Who,  that  has  had  the  opportunity  of 
judging,  has  not  felt,  as  he  lifted  the  snowy  segments  of  the 


4          MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

mangosteen  from  their  cup  of  royal  purple,  that  here  was  a 
fru  t  not  excelled  by  any  other  in  the  world?  The  cherimoya 
of  tropical  America  leaves  little  to  be  desired,  while  the  litchi 
is  preferred  in  China,  not  without  reason,  to  the  finest  orange  or 
peach.  American  residents  in  Hawaii  consider  the  papaya 
the  most  delicious  of  breakfast-fruits,  surpassing  in  their  esti- 
mation the  cantaloupe  or  muskmelon.  To  the  Japanese  taste 
there  is  no  better  fruit  than  the  kaki,  while  to  the  Arab  the  date 
is  the  quintessence  of  richness  and  flavor. 

The  ignorance,  or  tardiness  of  adoption,  of  the  art  of  graft- 
ing has,  in  many  tropical  countries,  prevented  the  development 
of  superior  fruits.  The  superb  apples  and  pears  of  the  Tem- 
perate Zone,  and  the  splendid  mangos  of  India,  could  not  be 
grown  without  grafting,  since  improved  varieties  of  nearly  all 
tree-fruits  tend  to  revert  to  the  wild  type  when  propagated  by 
seed.  The  finest  fruits  are,  in  fact,  artificial  productions  which 
can  only  be  maintained  by  artificial  means;  under  free  com- 
petition of  natural  selection  they  would  disappear. 

Because  of  this  rare  occurrence,  among  tropical  fruits,  of 
fine  horticultural  varieties  as  compared  with  the  profusion  of 
semi-wild  seedlings,  much  criticism  has  been  ignorantly  directed 
at  these  fruits  in  general.  C.  F.  Baker,  who  has  done  much 
to  advance  the  science  of  tropical  pomology,  graphically  states 
the  case  as  follows : 

"On  hearing  some  aspersions  cast  upon  the  caimite  (Chryso- 
phyllum  Cainito),  a  valuable  and  delicious  fruit  at  its  best,  a 
Cuban  was  heard  to  remark,  'There  are  caimit.es,  and  there  are 
caimites ! '  A  similar  remark  might  be  made  of  most  tropical 
fruits.  The  methods  of  seed  selection,  of  breeding,  and  of 
vegetative  propagation  have  rarely  been  brought  to  bear  on 
any  of  these  things.  As  for  systematic  search  for  the  better 
forms  now  existing,  and  the  rapid  building  up  of  really  com- 
prehensive experimental  plantations  of  them  in  the  tropical 
botanic  gardens  and  experiment  stations,  we  have  yet  a  field  of 


THE  OUTLOOK  FOR   TROPICAL  FRUITS  5 

highly  useful,  most  remunerative,  and  intensely  interesting 
work  before  us." 

It  is  to  this  field  that  attention  must  be  devoted,  if  the  agri- 
cultural development  of  the  tropics  is  not  to  become  even  more 
one-sided  than  it  is  to-day.  British  horticulturists  in  India  and 
Ceylon,  French  in  the  Oceanic  colonies,  and  American  in  the 
subtropical  parts  of  California  and  Florida,  as  well  as  in  the 
West  Indies,  Hawaii,  and  the  Philippines,  have  done  notable 
work  during  the  past  quarter  of  a  century;  yet  when  their 
achievements  are  considered  alongside  the  possibilities,  it  is 
evident  that  hardly  has  a  beginning  been  made  with  this 
promising  field. 

"  Botanicus  verus,"  said  the  great  Linnaeus,  "  desudabit  in 
augendo  amabikm  scientiam,"  -  "The  true  botanist  will  sweat 
in  advancing  his  beloved  science."  Even  so  must  the  inves- 
tigator who  undertakes  to  further  the  progress  of  tropical 
pomology  expect  to  find  hard  work,  at  times  under  trying 
climatic  conditions,  —  to  sweat  indeed,  —  unless  his  lot  is 
cast  in  the  delightful  climate  of  the  tropical  highlands,  or  in 
subtropical  regions  such  as  California  and  Florida.  But  the 
subject  is  one  which  offers  such  a  wealth  of  fascinating  problems 
and  gives  promise  of  such  valuable  results,  that  for  a  long 
time  to  come  it  can  hardly  fail  to  attract  the  needful  few  among 
the  many  whose  tastes  incline  them  toward  pomological  pur- 
suits. 

It  is  indeed  fortunate  for  our  country  that  its  boundaries 
include  areas  where  certain  of  the  most  valuable  tropical  fruits 
can  be  cultivated.  Of  these  areas,  the  warmer  parts  of  Florida 
and  California  seem  destined,  by  reason  of  their  favorable 
situation  with  respect  to  the  great  centers  of  our  population, 
to  take  the  lead  in  the  production  of  such  fruits  for  supplying 
the  northern  markets.  The  advantageous  climate  of  these 
states  as  regards  living  and  working  conditions,  as  compared 
with  the  tropics,  makes  it  probable  also  that  they  will  be  the 


6          MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

field  of  more  activity  along  lines  of  horticultural  investigation 
than  will  the  strictly  tropical  countries  where  the  fruits  are 
native.  Of  course,  it  is  not  possible  to  cultivate  within  the 
boundaries  of  the  continental  United  States  all  of  the  fruits 
discussed  in  this  work.  Many  of  them  are  uncompromisingly 
tropical  in  character  and  refuse  to  accommodate  themselves  to 
regions  where  the  temperature  ever  falls  as  low  as  the  freezing 
point.  It  is  a  noteworthy  and  hopeful  circumstance,  however, 
that  certain  of  the  tropical  fruits  attain  their  greatest  per- 
fection when  grown  at  the  extreme  northern  or  southern  limit 
of  their  zone,  when  pushed,  so  to  speak,  right  up  against  the 
frost-line.  For  example,  the  citrus  fruits  have  been  brought 
in  California  and  Florida  to  a  higher  degree  of  excellence  than 
has  been  reached  by  them  in  strictly  tropical  regions. 

It  has  been  thought  in  the  past  that  it  might  be  possible,  by 
means  of  a  process  of  acclimatization,  to  adapt  even  the  more 
tender  species  of  tropical  plants  to  conditions  in  California  and 
Florida,  and  ultimately  to  cultivate  them  on  a  commercial 
scale  in  those  states.  In  the  light  of  present  knowledge,  how- 
ever, it  seems  probable  that  ability  to  withstand  frost  is  not 
greatly  increased  by  submitting  a  plant  to  lower  temperatures 
than  those  to  which  it  has  been  accustomed,  even  when  this 
is  carried  through  several  consecutive  generations,  and  the 
chances  of  acclimatizing  in  California  such  fruits  as  the  strictly 
tropical  annonas  are  not  great. 

Many  of  the  tropical  fruits  have  as  yet  scarcely  been  brought 
under  cultivation,  and  systematic  cultivation  of  the  more 
important  ones,  such  as  the  avocado  and  mango,  is  of  such 
recent  origin  that  cultural  practices  have  not  yet  become 
standardized.  New  developments  are  constantly  taking  place. 
It  is,  therefore,  inevitable  that  many  of  the  practices  herein 
described  will  be  obsolete  a  few  years  hence. 

Regarding  the  use  of  the  terms  tropical  and  subtropical  a 
few  words  of  explanation  are  necessary.  Plants  which  will 


THE  OUTLOOK  FOR   TROPICAL  FRUIT&  7 

not  grow  where  the  temperature  falls  much  below  40°  (where 
temperatures  are  mentioned  in  this  work,  they  refer  to  the 
Fahrenheit  scale)  are  here  termed  strictly  tropical ;  by  tropical 
plants  are  meant  (following  P.  H.  Rolfs)  those  of  the  zone  in 
which  the  coconut  can  be  grown;  and  by  subtropical  plants, 
those  of  the  zone  of  the  orange.  The  next  region,  in  point  of 
minimum  temperatures,  should  be  termed  the  semi-tropical, 
but  this  term  is  frequently  confused  with  subtropical  and  had 
better  be  avoided  by  stretching  the  use  of  the  word  subtropical 
to  cover  the  region  in  which  the  loquat,  the  pomegranate,  and 
the  date  can  be  grown.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  however, 
that  knowledge  regarding  the  frost-resistance  of  plants  is  still 
meager.  Because  a  certain  species  has  safely  passed  through  a 
temperature  of  25°  above  zero  in  a  particular  instance  in 
California,  it  need  not  follow  that  the  plant  will  withstand  the 
same  temperature  in  another  region,  nor  even  that  the  same 
individual  specimen  in  California  would  withstand  again  25° 
if  in  different  physiological  condition. 

With  a  few  exceptions,  the  common  names  for  the  fruits  are 
those  recommended  by  the  American  Pomological  Society 
(Proceedings  1917).  The  pomological  nomenclature  (names  of 
fruit  varieties)  also  follows,  so  far  as  is  possible,  the  Code  of 
Nomenclature  of  that  Society.  In  spelling  names  which  have 
come  into  the  English  from  the  Arabic  or  some  other  oriental 
alphabet,  the  system  has  been  followed  elaborated  by  the  Inter- 
national Congress  of  Orientalists  at  Geneva  in  1894,  and  now 
generally  adopted  by  those  having  to  do  with  the  transliteration 
of  oriental  names ;  which  is,  that  vowels  should  take  the  value 
they  possess  in  Spanish  and  other  Latin  languages,  and  con- 
sonants the  value  they  possess  in  English.  The  names  in  this 
work  most  affected  by  the  application  of  this  principle  are  those 
of  varieties  of  the  mango,  date,  and  pomegranate,  and  the 
common  names  of  a  few  minor  fruits.  Current  spellings  rejected 
as  incorrect  are  given  in  the  synonymy  of  varieties. 


8          MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

The  botanical  nomenclature  is  intended  to  conform  to  the 
International  Rules,  better  known  as  the  Vienna  Rules.  These 
are  the  ones  followed  by  European,  as  well  as  many  American, 
botanists.  In  the  botanical  synonymy  all  names  are  included 
which  commonly  appear  in  the  publications  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  when  they  differ  from  those 
adopted  under  the  Vienna  Rules. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE   AVOCADO 

Plates  I-IV 

NORTH  AMERICAN  horticulturists  are  accustomed  to  view  the 
avocado  as  one  of  the  greatest  undeveloped  sources  of  food 
which  the  tropics  offer  at  the  present  day.  From  their  stand- 
point they  are  correct,  but  the  inhabitants  of  Mexico  and 
Central  America  would  consider  it  more  logical  to  assert  that 
the  Irish  potato  is  a  new  crop  deserving  of  extensive  cultivation. 
North  Americans  view  the  avocado  as  a  possibility,  but  to  the 
aboriginal  inhabitants  of  tropical  America  it  is  a  realized 
possibility. 

"Four  or  five  tortillas  [corn  cakes],  an  avocado,  and  a  cup  of 
coffee,  —  this  is  a  good  meal,"  say  the.  Indians  of  Guatemala. 

It  is  precisely  this  condition,  —  the  importance  of  the 
avocado  as  a  food  in  those  parts  of  tropical  America  where  it 
has  been  grown  since  immemorial  times,  —  that  has  led  students 
of  this  fruit  in  the  United  States  to  predict  that  avocado  culture 
will  some  day  become  more  important  than  citrus  culture  in 
California  and  Florida. 

To  a  certain  extent,  the  avocado  takes  the  place  of  meat  in  the 
dietary  of  the  Central  Americans.  It  is  appetizing,  it  is 
nourishing,  it  is  cheap,  and  it  is  available  throughout  most 
of  the  year.  When  these  last  two  conditions  have  been  re- 
produced in  the  United  States,  will  not  the  avocado  become  a 
staple  article  of  diet  with  millions  of  people? 

There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  eventually  the  avocado 
will  be  as  familiar  to  American  housewives  as  the  banana  is 

9 


10        MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

to-day.  The  increasing  scarcity  of  meat,  and  the  fact  that  an 
acre  of  land  will  yield  a  larger  amount  of  food  when  planted  to 
avocados  than  it  will  in  any  other  tree  crop  known  at  present, 
assures  the  future  importance  of  the  avocado  industry  in  this 
country. 

Horticulturally  speaking,  the  avocado  is  a  new  fruit.  In 
Central  America  it  has  been  grown  mainly  as  a  dooryard 
tree,  and  no  care  has  been  given  to  its  propagation  or  culture. 
During  the  last  fifteen  years  the  horticulturists  of  California 
and  Florida  have  devoted  systematic  attention  to  vegetative 
propagation,  to  cultural  methods,  and  to  the  development  of 
superior  varieties.  In  these  two  states  the  avocado  has  been 
regarded  as  a  fruit  of  great  commercial  possibilities.  Cuba, 
Porto  Rico,  and  several  other  countries  are  also  giving  serious 
consideration  to  commercial  avocado  culture. 

During  summer  and  autumn  the  avocado  is  regularly  offered 
in  the  markets  of  New  York,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  and  other 
large  cities.  Many  persons  who  ten  years  ago  were  not  even 
familiar  with  its  name  have  now  learned  to  appreciate  the 
merits  of  this  unique  fruit.  However,  production  is  not  yet 
great  enough  to  place  the  avocado  in  the  position  which  ulti- 
mately it  must  occupy,  —  that  of  a  staple  foodstuff,  rather  than 
a  luxury  or  a  salad-fruit. 

The  avocado  orchards  of  California,  Florida,  Cuba,  and 
Porto  Rico  now  have  a  total  area  approaching  one  thousand 
acres.  As  with  every  young  horticultural  industry,  the 
problems  of  propagation,  culture,  and  marketing  have  been 
numerous,  and  many  of  them  remain  to  be  solved.  The 
avocado  growers  of  California  have  formed  a  cooperative 
organization  for  the  purpose  of  attacking  these  problems  more 
efficiently.  Especially  important  is  the  question  of  varieties, 
which  must,  in  many  cases,  be  settled  individually  for  each 
locality.  Experience  of  the  last  fifteen  years  has  brought  to 
light  many  of  the  fundamental  requirements  of  the  avocado 


THE  AVOCADO  11 

tree  and  has  suggested  cultural  practices  and  methods  which 
are  producing  satisfactory  results.  In  addition,  problems  of 
budding  and  grafting  have  been  mastered,  and  these  means  of 
propagation  are  practiced  successfully  by  nurserymen,  with  the 
result  that  trees  of  the  best  varieties  are  obtainable  in  quantities 
which  permit  of  extensive  commercial  plantings.  A  large 
number  of  varieties  is  being  tested,  and  experience  in  handling 
and  marketing  the  fruit  is  being  gained  rapidly. 

BOTANICAL  DESCRIPTION 

The  genus  Persea,  to  which  the  avocado  belongs,  is  a  member 
of  the  laurel  family  (Lauracese) ;  hence  it  is  related  to  the 
cinnamon  tree,  camphor,  and  sassafras.  The  avocados  cul- 
tivated in  the  United  States  usually  have  been  considered 
to  represent  a  single  species,  Persea  americana,  but  careful 
study  shows  that  they  are  derived  from  two  species,  as 
follows : 

P.  americana,  Mill.  (P.  gratissima,  Gaertn.).  All  of  the 
varieties  classified  horticulturally  as  belonging  to  the  West 
Indian  and  Guatemalan  races  are  of  this  species.  It  is  the 
common  avocado  of  the  tropical  American  lowlands,  and  the 
one  which  has  been  most  widely  disseminated  throughout  the 
tropics. 

P.  drymifolia,  Cham.  &  Schlecht.  (P.  americana  var.  drymi- 
folia,  Mez).  This  includes  the  small  avocados  of  the  Mexican 
highlands,  now  grown  in  California,  Chile,  and  to  a  very  limited 
extent  in  southern  France,  Italy,  and  Algeria.  Horticulturists 
in  the  United  States  use  the  term  "Mexican  race"  to  indicate 
avocados  of  this  species. 

In  addition  to  these  two  species,  a  third  is  well  known  in 
southern  Mexico  and  Guatemala,  and  has  recently  been  intro- 
duced into  the  United  States.  This  is  the  coyo  or  chinini,  P. 
Schiedeana,  Nees.  The  yas  of  Costa  Rica  (probably  P.  Pittieri, 


12       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

Mez)  is  another  species  which  is  likely,  when  known  in  this 
country,  to  be  classed  popularly  as  an  avocado. 

The  two  species  from  which  the  cultivated  avocados  are 
derived  are  closely  alike  in  many  respects.  It  is  easy  to  dis- 
tinguish them  by  the  smell  of  the  crushed  leaves;  those  of 
P.  drymifolia  possess  an  aromatic  odor,  resembling  that  of 
anise  or  sassafras,  which  those  of  P.  americana  entirely  lack. 
The  flowers  of  P.  drymifolia  are  typically  more  pubescent,  and 
the  under  surfaces  of  the  leaves  more  glaucous,  than  those  of 
P.  americana.  The  fruits  also  are  distinct,  having  a  thin, 
almost  membranous  skin  in  the  former  species,  and  a  thick 
leathery  or  brittle  skin  in  the  latter.  The  horticultural 
differences  are  of  more  interest  here  than  the  botanical ;  they 
will  be  referred  to  later,  in  the  discussion  of  the  horticultural 
races. 

Seedling  avocados  of  both  species  vary  in  habit  of  growth, 
being  sometimes  short  and  spreading,  but  more  commonly  erect, 
even  slender.  On  shallow  soils  they  may  not  reach  more 
than  30  feet  in  height,  while  on  deep  moist  clay-loams  they 
sometimes  reach  60  feet.  Budded  trees  are  usually  more 
compact  in  habit  than  seedlings,  and  probably  will  not  attain 
such  great  ultimate  dimensions. 

While  the  avocado  is  classed  as  an  evergreen,  trees  of  some 
varieties  cast  their  foliage  at  the  time  of  flowering,  the  new 
leaves  making  their  appearance  almost  immediately.  The 
leaf-blades  are  multiform,  some  of  the  commonest  shapes  being 
lanceolate,  elliptic-lanceolate,  elliptic,  oblong-elliptic,  oval, 
ovate,  and  obovate.  The  apex  differs  from  almost  blunt  to 
acuminate,  while  the  base  is  usually  acute  or  truncate.  The 
length  of  the  blades  ranges  between  3  or  4  inches  and  as  much 
as  16  inches.  P.  drymifolia  usually  has  smaller  leaves  than 
P.  americana,  both  species  exhibiting  a  wide  diversity  in  leaf 
form. 

In  the  United  States  the  flowers  appear  from  November  to 


THE  AVOCADO 


13 


May,  according  to  locality  and  variety.    Occasionally  some  of 

the  Mexican  avocados  (P.  drymifolia)  bloom  in  November, 

while  the  Guatemalan  varieties  (P.  americana)  may  not  begin 

flowering  until  March  or  April.    The  flowers  (Fig.  1)  are  pro- 

duced in  racemes  near  the  ends  of  the  branches,  and  are  fur- 

nished with  both  stamens  and  pistils,  all  of  them  being  inherently 

capable  of  developing  into  fruits.     From  their  immense  number, 

however,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  only  a  minute  percentage  can 

actually  do  so.    They  are  small  and  pale  green  or  yellowish 

green  in  color.     At  first  glance  they  appear 

to  have  six  lanceolate  or  ovate  petals,  but 

on  closer  examination  these  are  seen  to  be 

perianth-lobes;     the   usual   differentiation 

into  two  whorls  or  series,  calyx  and  corolla, 

does    not    occur    in    the   avocado.      The 

perianth-lobes  are  of    nearly  equal  length 

in  most  varieties,  the  inner  three  occasion- 

ally being  longer  than  the  outer  ;  they  are 

more  or  less  pubescent,   heavily  so  in  P. 

drymifolia,  sometimes  almost  glabrous  in  P* 

americana.    The  nine  stamens  are  arranged 

in  three  series;    the  anthers  are  4-celled, 

the  cells  opening  by  small  valves  hinged  at 

AX-LL     u  *         i. 

the  upper  end.  At  the  base  of  each  stamen 
of  the  inner  series  are  two  large  orange-colored  glands  which 
secrete  nectar,  presumably  for  the  attraction  of  insects.  Inside 
the  stamens  are  three  staminodes  or  vestigial  stamens.  The 
ovary  is  1  -celled,  and  contains  a  single  ovule;  the  style  is 
slender,  usually  hairy,  with  a  simple  stigma. 

The  fruit  is  exceedingly  variable  in  both  species.  The 
smallest  fruits  of  P.  drymifolia  are  no  larger  than  plums,  while 
the  largest  of  P.  americana  weigh  more  than  three  pounds.  The 
form  in  both  species  is  commonly  pear-shaped,  oval,  or  obo- 
void,  but  ranges  from  round  and  oblate  at  one  extreme  to  long 


-fio.  1-    Rowers  of 

Fuerte  avocado. 


14       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

and  slender,  almost  the  shape  of  a  cucumber,  at  the  other. 
The  color  varies  from  yellow-green  or  almost  yellow  through 
many  shades  of  green  to  crimson,  maroon,  brown,  purple,  and 
almost  black.  The  skin  is  as  thin  as  that  of  an  apple  in  many 
varieties  of  P.  drymifolia;  in  P.  americana  it  is  occasionally  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  and  hard  and  woody  in  texture.  The 
fleshy  edible  part  which  lies  between  the  skin  and  the  seed  is  of 
buttery  consistency,  yellow  or  greenish  yellow  in  color,  of  a 
peculiarly  rich  nutty  flavor  in  the  best  varieties,  and  contains  a 
high  percentage  of  oil.  The  flesh  is  traversed  from  the  stem 
to  the  base  of  the  seed  by  streaks  or  fine  fibers  (invisible  in  the 
ripe  fruit  of  many  varieties)  which  represent  the  vascular 
system.  The  single  large  seed  is  oblate,  spherical,  conical,  or 
slender,  inverted  so  that  the  young  shoot  develops  from  the 
end  which  lies  toward  the  stem  of  the  fruit.  It  is  covered  by 
two  seed-coats,  varying  in  thickness,  often  adhering  closely  to 
one  another.  The  cotyledons  are  normally  two,  occasionally 
three  in  P.  drymifolia,  white  or  greenish  white  in  color,  smooth 
or  roughened  on  the  surface. 

HISTORY  AND  DISTRIBUTION 

The  native  home  of  the  avocado  is  on  the  mainland  of  tropical 
America.  Per  sea  drymifolia  is  abundant  in  the  wild  state  on 
the  lower  slopes  of  the  volcano  Orizaba,  in  southern  Mexico, 
as  well  as  in  other  parts  of  that  country.  The  extent  of  its 
distribution  is  not  precisely  known.  The  native  home  of  P. 
americana  has  not  been  determined  with  certainty,  since  the 
tree  has  been  so  long  in  cultivation  and  few  efforts  have  as 
yet  been  made  to  locate  the  region  in  which  it  is  truly  in- 
digenous. 

Jacques  Huber,  in  the  Boletim  do  Museu  Goeldi,  says : 
"  Everything  indicates  that  the  avocado,  originally  indigenous 
to  Mexico,  has  been  cultivated  since  immemorial  times,  and 


THE  AVOCADO  15 

that  it  very  early  spread  through  Central  America  to  Peru; 
then  into  the  Antilles,  where  its  introduction  is  mentioned  by 
Jacquin;  and  much  later  into  Brazil."  He  also  remarks  that 
its  presence  in  Peru  in  pre-Colombian  days  is  indicated  by  the 
indigenous  name,  palta,  and  the  finding  of  fruits  in  the  graves 
of  the  Incas.  W.  E.  Safford,  however,  says  that  no  vestiges 
of  the  avocado  are  found  in  the  prehistoric  graves  of  the  Peru- 
vian coast,  nor  is  it  represented  in  the  casts  of  fruits  and  vege- 
tables discovered  among  the  terra  cotta  funeral  vases  so  abun- 
dant in  the  vicinity  of  Trujillo  and  Chimbote. 

While  it  is  probable  that  the  avocado  is  of  relatively  recent 
introduction  into  Brazil,  and  that  its  presence  in  Peru  in  pre- 
Colombian  days  may  be  open  to  question,  the  existence  of 
native  names  for  it  in  many  different  languages,  as  well  as 
references  by  the  early  voyagers,  indicate  that  at  the  time  of  the 
Discovery  it  was  cultivated,  if  not  indigenous,  in  extreme 
northern  South  America  and  from  there  through  Central 
America  into  Mexico. 

The  first  written  account  of  the  avocado,  so  far  as  known, 
is  contained  in  the  report  of  Gonzalo  Hernandez  de  Oviedo 
(1526),  who  saw  the  tree  in  Colombia,  near  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama. 

Pedro  de  Cieza  de  Leon,  who  traveled  in  tropical  America 
between  1532  and  1550,  mentions  the  avocado  as  one  of  the 
fruits  used  by  the  Spaniards  who  had  settled  in  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama,  and  as  being  an  article  of  food  among  the  natives  of 
Arma  and  Cali,  in  Colombia. 

Francisco  Cervantes  Salazar,  one  of  the  earliest  chroniclers 
of  Mexico,  gives  evidence  that  the  avocado  was  well  known  in 
the  markets  of  Mexico  City  as  early  as  1554,  which  was  very 
soon  after  the  Conquest.  In  a  later  work,  the  "Cronica  de 
Xueva  Espana,"  written  about  the  year  1575,  he  described  the 
fruit.  Both  in  this  work  and  in  his  earlier  one,  "Mexico  en 
1554,"  he  uses  the  name  aguacate. 


16       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

Sahagun,  another  early  chronicler  of  Mexico,  who  wrote  some 
time  previous  to  1569,  briefly  describes  the  Mexican  avocado 
(Persea  drymifolia)  under  the  Aztec  name,  which  he  spelled  aoacatl. 

Acosta,  writing  in  1590,  distinguished  clearly  between  the 
Mexican  form  and  that  grown  in  Peru.  He  used  the  Peruvian 
name  palta,  in  place  of  the  Mexican  ahuacatl  or  any  of  its 
corruptions. 

Garcilasso  de  la  Vega,  writing  in  1605,  states  that  the  name 
palta  was  applied  to  this  fruit  by  the  Incas,  who  brought  the 
tree  from  the  province  of  Palta  to  the  valley  of  Cuzco. 

One  of  the  most  valuable  accounts  written  in  the  early 
days  is  that  of  Hernandez,  as  «edited  and  published  by  the 
friar  Francisco  Ximenez  in  1615.  Hernandez,  who  was  a 
physician  sent  by  the  King  of  Spain  to  study  the  medicinal 
plants  of  Mexico,  was  evidently  familiar  only  with  the  Mexican 
avocado  (P.  drymifolia) ;  at  least,  if  he  had  seen  the  lowland 
species  he  makes  no  mention  of  it. 

Another  excellent  account  was  written  in  1653  by  Bernabe 
Cobo,  a  priest  who  had  traveled  widely  in  tropical  America. 
He  was  the  first,  so  far  as  known,  to  mention  the  Guatemalan 
avocados.  After  describing  at  some  length  the  West  Indian 
race,  as  it  is  now  called,  mentioning  in  particular  the  varieties 
grown  in  Yucatan  and  those  of  certain  sections  of  Peru,  he  says  : 

"There  are  three  distinct  kinds  of  paltas.  The  second 
kind  is  a  large,  round  one  which  is  produced  in  the  province  of 
Guatemala,  and  which  does  not  have  as  smooth  a  skin  as  the 
first.  The  third  is  a  small  palta  which  is  found  in  Mexico 
which  in  size,  color  and  form  resembles  a  Breva  fig ;  some  are 
round  and  others  elongate,  and  the  skin  is  as  thin  and  smooth 
as  that  of  a  plum." 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  three  groups  of  cultivated  avocados, 
recognized  at  the  present  day  by  horticulturists  under  the  names 
of  West  Indian,  Guatemalan,  and  Mexican,  were  distinguished 
as  early  as  1653  by  Padre  Cobo. 


THE  AVOCADO  17 

Hughes,  in  his  important  work  "The  American  Physician" 
published  in  1672,  devotes  a  short  chapter  to  "The  Spanish 
Pear."  His  reference  to  its  having  been  planted  in  Jamaica 
by  the  Spaniards  is  in  agreement  with  other  accounts,  all  of 
which  indicate  that  the  avocado  was  not  cultivated  in  the  West 
Indies  previous  to  the  Discovery. 

Sir  Hans  Sloane,  in  his  catalog  of  the  plants  of  Jamaica, 
~  published  in  1696,  briefly  describes  the  avocado,  cites  numerous 
works  in  which  it  is  mentioned,  and  gives  as  its  common  name 
"The  avocado  or  alligator  pear-tree."  This  is  the  first  time 
that  either  of  these  names  appears  in  print,  so  far  as  has  been 
discovered. 

It  is  useless  to  enter  into  a  discussion  of  all  the  common 
names  which  have  appeared  in  the  literature  of  this  fruit. 
G.  N.  Collins 1  lists  forty-three,  but  many  of  them  are  of 
limited  use,  and  others  are  the  clumsy  efforts  of  early  writers 
to  spell  the  names  they  had  heard. 

The  correct  name  of  this  fruit  in  English  is  at  present  recog- 
nized to  be  avocado.  This  is  undoubtedly  a  corruption  of  the 
Spanish  ahuacate  or  aguacate,  which  in  turn  is  an  adaptation  of 
the  Aztec  ahuacatl.  The  Spaniards,  who  probably  introduced 
-  the  avocado  into  Jamaica,  brought  with  it  the  Mexican  name. 
When  Jamaica  was  taken  by  the  British  this  name  began  to 
undergo  a  process  of  corruption,  during  which  such  forms  as 
albecata,  avigato,  and  avocato  were  developed.  Frequently 
the  term  "pear"  was  added  to  these,  in  conformity  with  the 
tendency  of  the  early  English  colonists  to  apply  familiar  names 
to  the  fruits  which  they  found  in  America.  We  have  many 
other  evidences  of  this  tendency,  e.g.,  star-apple,  custard- 
apple,  hog-plum,  Spanish-plum. 

The  name  avocado  or  avocado-pear  was  one  of  the  numerous 
corruptions  which  found  its  way  into  print,  first  appearing, 
so  far  as  known,  in  1696  (see  above).  For  some  reason  it  has 

1  Bull.  77,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry. 
c 


18       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

outlived  many  other  corruptions.  Since  it  is  reasonably  eupho- 
nious, well  adapted  to  the  English  language,  and  widely  used, 
it  has  been  officially  adopted  by  the  California  Avocado  Asso- 
ciation and  is  used  in  the  publications  of  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  as  well  as  by  horticultural  societies  and 
horticulturists  generally.  The  name  alligator-pear,  which  seems 
to  have  appeared  in  the  same  way  and  about  the  same  time  as 
the  term  avocado,  is  considered  decidedly  objectionable,  and  a 
vigorous  effort  is  being  made  to  eliminate  it  from  popular  usage. 
Ahuacate  (more  commonly  but  less  correctly  spelled  aguacate) 
is  the  name  at  present  used  in  Mexico,  Central  America  as  far 
south  as  Costa  Rica,  and  the  Spanish-speak- 
ing islands  of  the  West  Indies,  as  well  as  in  a 
few  other  parts  of  the  world.  The  original 
form  ahuacatl  is  still  employed  in  those  sec- 
tions of  Mexico  where  the  Aztec  or  Mexican 
language  has  not  been  replaced  by  Spanish. 
The  avocado  tree  is  ahuacaquahuitl,  a  com- 
bination of  ahuacatl  and  quahuitl  (tree). 
There  were  at  least  two  towns  in  ancient 
FIG.  2.  Sign  of  Mexico  named  Ahuacatlan.  This  word  was 

the     avocado     tree  -.  .      .,          .    .  ...  »   .,       A 

used  by  the  Aztecs,  expressed  in  the  picture  writing  or  the  Aztecs 
by  means  of  the  sign  of  the  avocado  tree  and 
the  locative  suffix  -tlan,  indicated  by  teeth  set  in  the  trunk  of 
the  tree  (Fig.  2).  The  picture  thus  read  ahuacatlan,  or  "place 
where  the  ahuacate  abounds."  The  word  ahuacatl  has  two 
meanings ;  one,  the  fruit  of  the  avocado  tree,  and  the  other, 
testicle. 

The  name  pahua  (from  the  Aztec  pauatl,  fruit)  is  applied 
in  certain  parts  of  Mexico  to  avocados  of  the  Guatemalan  and 
West  Indian  races,  distinguishing  them  from  the  thinner 
skinned  and  smaller  ahuacates  of  the  Mexican  race. 

In  southern  Costa  Rica  the  common  name  is  cura,  while  in 
the  western  part  of  South  America  the  Peruvian  name  palta  is 


THE  AVOCADO  19 

current.    The  latter  occurs  in  the  Quichua  language,  and  is  of 
unknown  derivation. 

The  names  current  in  various  European  languages  are  mainly 
adaptations  or  corruptions  of  the  Spanish  ahuacate  or  aguacate. 
The  Portuguese  name,  used  principally  in  Brazil,  is  abacate; 
the  French  generally  call  the  fruit  avocat;  while  the  German 
name  is  advogado  or  avocato. 

In  all  probability  the  avocado  was  brought  to  Florida  by 
the  Spaniards,  but  the  first  introduction  of  which  a  record  has 
been  found  was  in  1833,  when  Henry  Perrine  sent  trees  from 
Mexico  to  his  grant  of  land  below  Miami. 
-  The  first  successful  introduction  into  California  is  believed 
to  have  been  in  1871,  when  R.  B.  Ord  brought  three  trees  from 
Mexico  and  planted  them  at  Santa  Barbara.  It  seems  strange 
that  so  valuable  a  fruit  should  not  have  been  introduced  into 
California  by  the  Franciscan  padres,  who  came  from  Mexico 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  to  whom  credit 
is  due  for  the  introduction  of  the  orange,  the  olive,  and  the 
vine. 

According  to  Higgins,  Hunn,  and  Holt,1  the  avocado  was 
grown  in  Hawaii  as  early  as  1825,  although  it  did  not  become 
common  until  after  1853. 

The  avocado  is  now  cultivated  to  a  very  limited  extent  in 
Algeria,  southern  Spain,  and  France,  and  has  even  fruited  in  the 
open  at  Rome.  Naturally,  only  the  hardiest  varieties  succeed 
in  the  Mediterranean  region.  In  India  and  other  parts  of  the 
Orient  it  has  never  become  common,  although  it  may  have 
been  introduced  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
In  Reunion  and  Madagascar  it  seems  to  be  more  abundant. 
In  Polynesia  it  has  become  well  established,  considerable 
quantities  of  the  fruit  having  been  shipped  from  the  French 
island  of  Tahiti  to  San  Francisco.  It  is  gaining  a  foothold  in 
northern  Australia,  and  is  grown  in  Natal,  Mauritius,  Madeira, 
1  Bull.  25,  Hawaii  Agr.  Exp.  Sta. 


20        MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

and  the  Canary  Islands.  In  the  Philippines  its  culture  has 
been  established  since  the  American  occupation,  many  varieties 
having  been  introduced  by  the  Bureau  of  Agriculture. 

While  it  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  avocado  has  spread  from 
its  native  home  entirely  around  the  globe,  it  is  still  most  abun- 
dant, and  of  the  greatest  importance  as  a  food,  in  tropical 
America.  Throughout  Mexico,  Central  America,  and  the  West 
Indies  seedlings  are  common  in  dooryards,  thriving  with 
practically  no  attention  and  yielding  generously  of  their  delicious 
and  nourishing  fruits.  Rarely  in  these  countries,  however, 
has  the  avocado  been  developed  as  an  orchard  crop ;  but  this 
is  not  surprising  in  'view  of  the  fact  that  orchards  of  fruit- 
trees  are  almost  unknown  in  the  tropics. 

COMPOSITION  AND  USES  OF  THE  FRUIT 

Due  to  the  investigations  of  M.  E.  Jaffa  and  his  associates 
at  the  University  of  California,  much  light  has  been  thrown 
on  the  food  value  of  the  avocado  in  recent  years.  The  following 
table  shows  the  composition  of  several  well-known  varieties, 
one  of  each  of  the  recognized  horticultural  races,  and  the 
hybrid  Fuerte.  In  presenting  this  table,  which  is  based  on 
the  work  of  Jaffa,  it  is  necessary  to  explain  that  the  proportions 
of  the  constituents  have  been  found  to  change  in  each  variety 
according  to  the  degree  of  maturity  of  the  fruits.  They  may 
fluctuate  also  in  different  years.  Variation  is  particularly 
noticeable  in  regard  to  the  fat-content.  For  example,  in 
specimens  of  the  Chappelow  examined  at  different  times,  the 
percentage  of  fat  ranged  from  approximately  14  to  30,  while 
in  specimens  of  the  Challenge  it  ran  from  3  to  17.  Fruits 
showing  the  lowest  percentages  were  immature  at  the  time  the 
analyses  were  made,  but  they  were  no  more  so,  probably,  than 
many  which  are  put  on  the  market.  Up  to  a  certain  point, 
the  fat-content  increases  with  the  maturity  of  the  fruit;  after 


THE  AVOCADO 


21 


this  point  is  reached,  there  is  quite  often  no  further  increase,  no 
matter  how  long  the  fruit  may  remain  on  the  tree. 

The  total  dry  matter  in  the  edible  portion  of  the  avocado  is 
greater  than  in  any  other  fresh  fruit,  the  one  nearest  approach- 
ing it  being  the  banana,  which  contains  about  25  per  cent.  An 
average  of  twenty-eight  analyses  showed  the  avocado  to  con- 
tain about  30  per  cent. 

TABLE  I.    COMPOSITION  OP  AVOCADO  VARIETIES 


VARIETY 

WATER 

PROTEIN 

FAT 

CARBO- 
HYDRATES 

ASH 

% 

% 

7, 

% 

% 

Trapp      .... 

78.66 

1.61 

9.80 

9.08 

0.85 

(West  Indian) 

Sharpless 

71.21 

1.70 

20.54 

5.43 

1.12 

(Guatemalan) 

Puebla     .... 

63.32 

1.80 

26.68 

6.64 

1.56 

(Mexican) 

Fuerte      .... 

69.86 

1.25 

29.14 

7.40 

1.35 

(Hybrid) 

The  protein-content,  which  has  been  found  to  average 
about  2  per  cent,  is  higher  than  that  of  any  other  fresh  fruit. 

The  percentage  of  carbohydrates  is  not  high  compared  with 
that  of  many  other  fruits,  because  the  avocado  contains  almost 
no  sugar.  F.  B.  La  Forge  of  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry  at 
Washington  has  found  in  the  avocado  a  new  sugar,  called 
D-Mannoketoheptose,  which  is  believed  to  be  present  in 
amounts  varying  from  0.5  to  1  per  cent. 

The  amount  of  mineral  matter  is  much  greater  than  is 
found  in  other  fresh  fruits.  Soda,  potash,  magnesium,  and 
lime  compose  more  than  one-half  the  ash  or  mineral  matter, 
which  places  the  avocado  among  the  foods  which  yield  an  excess 
of  the  base-forming  elements,  as  opposed  to  nuts,  which  furnish 
acid-forming  elements  in  excess. 


22       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

Jaffa  *  says :  "  So  far  as  protein  and  ash  in  fresh  fruits  are 
concerned,  the  avocado  stands  at  the  head  of  the  list,  and  with 
reference  to  the  carbohydrates,  contains  on  an  average  fully  50 
per  cent  of  that  found  in  many  fresh  fruits.  These  facts  alone 
would  warrant  due  consideration  being  given  to  the  value  of 
the  avocado  as  a  fresh  fruit.  Its  chief  value  as  a  food,  however, 
is  due  to  its  high  content  of  fat.  This  varies,  as  shown  by  the 
analysis,  from  a  minimum  of  9.8  per  cent  to  a  maximum  of 
29.1  per  cent,  with  an  average  of  20.1  per  cent.  The  only 
fruit  comparable  with  the  avocado  in  this  respect  is  the  olive." 

Experiments  carried  on  at  the  University  of  California  have 
shown  that  the  digestibility  of  avocado  fat  is  equal  to  that  of 
butter-fat,  and  not  below  that  of  beef  fat. 

As  to  the  caloric  or  energy-producing  value  of  the  avocado 
in  twenty-eight  varieties  examined,  one  pound  of  the  flesh 
represents  an  average  of  1000  calories.  The  maximum  and 
minimum  were  1325  and  597  respectively.  The  maximum 
"  corresponds  to  about  75  per  cent  of  the  fuel  value  of  the  cereals 
and  is  not  far  from  twice  that  noted  for  average  lean  meat." 

In  the  following  table  the  avocado  is  compared,  in  caloric 
value,  with  several  common  foodstuffs.  For  this  comparison 
a  pound  of  avocado  flesh  has  been  considered  to  represent  1000 
calories;  this  is  not  showing  the  avocado  at  its  best,  for,  as 
just  stated,  in  some  varieties  a  pound  represents  over  1300 
calories : 

CALORIES 

100  grams  (about  3±  oz.)  boiled  rice 322 

100  grams  white  bread 246 

100  grams  avocado 218 

100  grams  egg 166 

100  grams  lean  beef      , 100 

It  must  not  be  assumed  from  the  figures  that  the  avocado 
has  a  total  food  value  greater  than  that  of  lean  beef.  It  is 

1  Bull.  254,  Calif.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta. 


THE  AVOCADO  23 

only  the  caloric  or  energy-producing  values  that  are  shown,  and 
much  of  the  value  of  meat  as  a  food  lies,  of  course,  not  in  the 
energy  which  it  produces,  but  in  its  ability  to  build  up  and 
repair  the  tissues  of  the  body. 

In  the  United  States  the  avocado  is  commonly  used  in  the 
form  of  a  salad,  either  alone  or  combined  with  lettuce,  onions, 
or  other  vegetables.  Up  to  the  present,  no  satisfactory  ways  of 
cooking  or  preserving  this  fruit  have  been  developed.  Experi- 
ments in  extracting  a  table-  or  cooking-oil  have  been  encourag- 
ing, but  as  yet  the  production  of  avocados  in  this  country  is 
not  great  enough  to  permit  the  commercial  development  of 
this  field.  In  the  tropics,  the  fruit  is  added  to  soups  at  the 
time  of  serving ;  mashed  with  onions  and  lemon  juice  to  form 
the  delectable  guacamole  of  Cuba  and  Mexico;  or  eaten  as  a 
vegetable,  without  the  addition  of  any  other  seasoning  than  a 
little  salt.  In  Brazil  it  is  looked  on  more  as  a  dessert  than 
as  a  staple  foodstuff,  and  is  made  into  a  delicious  ice-cream. 
Numerous  recipes  appear  in  cook-books  which  have  been  pub- 
lished in  Cuba,  Florida,  California,  and  Hawaii. 

CLIMATE  AND  SOIL 

It  is  impossible  to  define  in  few  words  the  climatic  condi- 
tions most  favorable  to  the  avocado,  since  the  different  races 
do  not  always  succeed  under  the  same  conditions.  The  sub- 
ject must,  therefore,  be  considered  from  the  standpoint  of  races. 

The  West  Indian  race,  which  comes  from  the  moist  low- 
lands and  seacoasts  of  tropical  America,  is  more  susceptible 
to  frost  than  the  others.  Hence,  when  grown  near  the  north- 
ern limit  of  the  subtropical  zone,  it  requires  more  protection 
from  possible  severe  frosts  than  the  Guatemalan  race,  which 
comes  from  the  highlands  of  southern  Mexico  and  Guatemala, 
or  the  hardy  avocados  from  central  and  northern  Mexico 
which  constitute  the  Mexican  race.  Not  a  few  losses  have 


24       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

already  resulted  from  attempts  to  grow  West  Indian  avocados 
in  locations  in  California  subject  to  occasional  severe  frosts. 
In  this  state,  the  Guatemalan  and  Mexican  races  are  the  only 
ones  to  plant.  The  same  is  true  of  central  and  northern 
Florida,  where  the  West  Indian  race  has  nearly  always  suc- 
cumbed to  cold. 

In  Florida,  the  region  in  which  avocado  culture  is  at  present 
conducted  commercially,  lies  south  of  Palm  Beach  on  the  east 
coast  and  south  of  Tampa  Bay  on  the  west.  Of  the  orchards 
which  are  now  in  bearing,  the  largest  are  situated  close  to 
Miami  and  Homestead.  On  the  west  coast  the  most  impor- 
tant plantings  are  near  Fort  Myers.  Most  of  the  orchards  in 
Florida  are  planted  to  Trapp,  a  variety  of  the  West  Indian 
race.  The  planting  of  hardy  Guatemalan  kinds  will  prob- 
ably extend  the  commercial  culture  of  this  fruit  many  miles  to 
the  northward  of  the  present  limits  of  the  zone.  In  addition, 
it  will  make  avocado  growing  safer  in  all  regions  by  lessening 
the  possibility  of  frost  injury.  The  Mexican  race  is  known  to 
have  fruited  as  far  north  in  Florida  as  Gainesville  and  Waldo. 

In  California,  most  of  the  young  orchards,  as  well  as  the  old 
seedlings  which  have  fruited  for  some  years,  are  in  the  vicinity 
of  Los  Angeles,  Orange,  and  Santa  Barbara.  The  coastal 
belt  between  Santa  Barbara  and  San  Diego,  including  the 
foothill  region  some  distance  from  the  coast,  has  been  tested 
sufficiently  to  show  that  planting  may  proceed  with  confidence. 
In  the  interior  valleys  comparatively  few  trees  have  been 
planted,  and  these  mainly  in  recent  years.  Much  less  is 
known,  therefore,  regarding  the  adaptability  of  the  avocado 
in  these  situations.  Old  seedlings  are  to  be  seen  at  Visalia,  San 
Luis  Obispo,  Berkeley,  Los  Gatos,  and  Napa,  indicating  that 
some  varieties  may  be  grown  successfully  as  far  north  as  the 
Sacramento  Valley.  Sections  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  which 
have  proved  suitable  for  citrus  culture,  such  as  the  Porter- 
ville  district,  should  prove  safe  for  the  hardier  varieties  of 


PLATE  II.     Four  or  five  tortillas  (corn  cakes)  and  a  good-sized 
avocado  are  considered  a  good  meal  by  the  Guatemala  Indians. 


THE  AVOCADO  25 

avocados  as  well.  Experimental  plantings  in  the  Imperial 
and  Coachella  Valleys  have  up  to  the  present  served  only  to 
indicate  that  the  atmosphere  of  these  regions  is  too  dry.  The 
leaves  turn  brown  and  fall  off,  no  matter  how  much  water  is 
applied  at  the  root. 

As  a  guide  to  planters  in  regions  where  the  avocado  has  not 
been  tested,  it  may  be  said  that  experience  has  shown  the 
Guatemalan  race  to  be  about  as  hardy  as  the  lemon.  Certain 
kinds  probably  are  hardier  than  that,  while  others  are  known 
to  be  more  tender.  The  Mexican  race,  in  its  hardier  varieties, 
withstands  a  little  more  frost  than  the  orange.  The  West 
Indian  race  is  distinctly  more  tender  than  either  the  Guatemalan 
or  Mexican. 

W.  J.  Krome's  experience  at  Homestead,  Florida,  leads  him 
to  say :  "  As  a  general  rule  West  Indian  avocados,  beyond  one 
year  old,  will  not  be  damaged  by  a  temperature  of  32°  unless 
that  temperature  holds  for  a  longer  period  than  two  or  three 
hours.  When  four  or  five  years  old  they  will  stand  26°  or  27° 
without  injury,  except  to  tender  growth,  but  below  that  tem- 
perature there  is  likely  to  be  considerable  damage.  At  22° 
five-year-old  Trapp  trees  were  killed  back  to  wood  one  inch  in 
diameter.  At  a  temperature  somewhere  between  22°  and  24° 
Guatemalans  have,  with  a  few  exceptions,  shown  almost  no 
damage  beyond  a  slight  singeing  of  the  leaves." 

In  the  Report  of  the  California  Avocado  Association  for 
1917,  H.  J.  Webber  publishes  the  following  summary  of  the 
effect  of  different  temperatures  on  avocado  trees  in  California 
in  the  cold  weather  of  the  winter  of  1916-1917 : 

"30°  F.     Nothing  injured  so  far  as  could  be  observed. 

"  29°  F.  No  injury  of  account ;  only  traces  on  most  tender  growth 
of  West  Indian  and  Guatemalan  varieties. 

"28°F.  New  foliage  scorched  on  Guatemalan  types;  West 
Indian  varieties  showing  considerable  damage. 

"  27°  F.  Mexican  varieties  with  new  tips  slightly  scorched ;  Guate- 
malan with  almost  all  new  foliage  injured ;  West  Indian  badly  damaged. 


26        MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

"25°  to  26°  F.  Mexican  varieties  with  new  foliage  injured  but 
some  dormant  trees  uninjured ;  all  Guatemalan  sorts  with  new  foliage 
badly  injured  and  some  old  foliage  scorched. 

"24°F.  Some  dormant  Mexicans  uninjured;  Guatemalan  varie- 
ties badly  injured,  small  limbs  frozen  back. 

"  21°  F.  All  Guatemalan  types  killed  to  bud ;  a  few  of  the  hardiest 
Mexicans,  such  as  Knowles  and  San  Sebastian,  with  young  leaves 
only  injured." 

The  observations  reported  to  Webber  showed  that  young 
trees  were  injured  at  higher  temperatures  than  older  ones, 
when  the  variety  was  the  same  in  both  cases.  It  was 
also  observed  that  trees  in  rapid  growth  were  more  severely 
injured  than  those  which  were  in  semi-dormant  condition. 
Krome  of  Florida  reports  an  opposite  state  of  affairs.  He 
says:  "At  the  time  of  the  January  1918  freeze,  Trapp  trees 
which  had  borne  heavy  crops  and  were  in  a  hard,  completely 
dormant  state  suffered  a  great  deal  more  injury  than  trees 
which,  owing  to  light  crops  the  preceding  season,  were  in  full 
growth."  Possibly  the  trees  were  weakened  by  over-production 
of  fruit,  and  thus  more  susceptible  to  frost-injury.  The  sub- 
ject demands  further  investigation. 

Webber  further  says:  "Trees  which  needed  irrigation  when 
the  freeze  came  suffered  rather  severely,  as  did  also  trees  that 
had  been  irrigated  three  to  five  days  before  the  freeze  and  were 
thus  gorged  with  water.  The  least  injury  seemed  to  be  on 
trees  that  had  been  thoroughly  irrigated  two  or  three  weeks 
before  the  freeze,  and  had  water  supposedly  in  what  might  be 
termed  the  optimum  amount." 

In  regions  subject  to  frosts,  it  is  necessary  to  protect  the 
trees  during  the  first  two  or  three  winters  with  shelters  of  burlap, 
or  by  placing  palm-leaves,  pine  boughs,  or  other  material 
around  them.  Frost-fighting  with  orchard  heaters  is  some- 
times practiced  where  heavy  frosts  are  expected. 

A  sharp  frost  at  the  time  the  tree  is  in  flower  may  result 
in  a  crop  failure,  although  the  danger  from  this  source  is  prob- 


THE  AVOCADO  27 

ably  not  great  either  in  California  or  Florida,  and  has  been 
over-estimated  in  the  past.  In  Florida,  the  West  Indian  race 
usually  blooms  late  enough  to  escape  the  coldest  weather,  while 
in  California  the  Mexican  race,  though  it  blooms  in  winter,  is 
sufficiently  hardy  to  withstand  ordinary  frosts,  and  the  Guate- 
malan race  does  not  bloom  until  April  or  May.  The  latter 
race  is,  therefore,  the  safest  in  this  respect. 

In  California,  avocado  culture  is  not  dependent  on  rainfall, 
since  irrigation  is  commonly  practiced.  In  Florida,  on  the 
other  hand,  very  few  crops  are  irrigated,  and  up  to  the  present 
it  has  been  the  general  custom  not  to  irrigate  avocado  trees,  / 
except  during  the  first  two  or  three  summers.  It  is  coming 
to  be  recognized,  however,  that  a  wet  spring  is  followed 
by  a  good  avocado  crop  and  a  dry  one  by  a  poor  crop  (a 
condition  exactly  reversed  with  the  mango).  As  a  result  of 
this  observation,  irrigation  is  beginning  to  be  practiced  in 
southern  Florida,  especially  in  seasons  when  the  rainfall  is 
below  normal. 

The  necessary  soil-moisture  can  be  supplied  easily  and 
satisfactorily,  but  the  relative  humidity  of  the  atmosphere 
cannot  be  altered  artificially;  hence  in  regions  wfiere  the 
humidity  is  exceedingly  low  the  avocado  suffers  in  the  dry 
portion  of  the  year.  In  Florida  no  attention  need  be  paid  to 
this  subject,  since  the  humidity  closely  approaches  that  of  the 
West  Indies  and  other  regions  where  the  avocado  is  at  home. 
Humidity  may  prove,  however,  to  be  the  limiting  factor  in 
parts  of  California.  Tests  in  the  Imperial  and  Coachella 
Valleys  indicate  that  the  trees  are  seriously  injured  by  the  dry- 
ness  of  the  atmosphere.  Experience  shows  that  the  Mexican  - 
race  is  less  susceptible  than  the  West  Indian.  None  of  the 
varieties  so  far  tested,  however,  has  proved  to  be  so  resistant 
to  atmospheric  dryness  as  the  orange  or  grapefruit.  Shading 
may  help  to  limit  the  injury  from  this  source.  It  has  been 
found  very  beneficial  in4  the  coastal  belt  of  California,  where 


28       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

.young  avocado  trees  are  often  injured  during  the  dry  summer 
months  by  sunburn. 

Another  climatic  factor  which  deserves  consideration  is  the 
danger  from  high  winds.  The  lower  east  coast  of  Florida  is 
occasionally  visited  by  a  West  Indian  hurricane  which  defoli- 
ates trees,  strips  them  of  their  crops,  or  even  breaks  them  down. 
Certain  parts  of  California  are  also  subject  to  occasional  high 
winds,  less  severe  than  the  hurricane  but  nevertheless  capable 
of  doing  much  damage.  To  minimize  the  danger  from  this 
source,  it  is  advisable  to  keep  the  trees  as  low  as  possible  through 
pruning,  since  they  are  then  much  less  liable  to  injury.  The 
low  tree  has  an  additional  advantage  in  that  it  permits  of 
picking  the  fruit  without  the  use  of  tall  ladders,  and  keeps  the 
branches  more  readily  accessible  for  pruning,  spraying,  or 
thinning  the  fruit. 

In  regard  to  soil  the  avocado  seems  to  be  unusually  adapt- 
able, succeeding  on  the  sandy  lands  of  southern  Florida,  the 
volcanic  loams  of  Guatemala  and  Mexico,  the  red  clays  of 
Cuba  and  Guatemala,  the  granite  soils  of  California,  and  even 
on  heavy  adobe,  provided  the  drainage  is  good.  This  question 
is  less  important,  therefore,  than  many  others  connected  with 
avocado  culture.  The  chief  requisite  is  good  drainage. 

Most  of  the  avocado  groves  of  southeastern  Florida  are 
situated  upon  limestone  of  the  kind  shown  as  Miami  oolite. 
This  formation  comprises  a  narrow  strip  of  land  extending 
from  above  Fort  Lauderdale  on  the  north  to  some  miles  below 
Homestead  on  the  south,  being  widest  near  the  latter  place, 
and  nowhere  more  than  thirty  feet  above  sea  level.  In  many 
parts  of  this  region  the  rock  comes  to  the  surface ;  toward  the 
northern  end  it  is  commonly  overlaid  with  six  inches  to  two 
feet  of  loose  light-colored  quartz  sand,  while  below  Miami  the 
surface  soil  becomes  very  scanty,  but  heavier  in  nature,  contain- 
ing some  clay  in  certain  localities,  and  being  strongly  impreg- 
nated with  iron,  giving  it  a  reddish  color.  The  rock  itself  is 


THE  AVOCADO  29 

soft  and  porous,  and  in  the  process  of  erosion  has  broken  down 
unequally,  leaving  a  jagged  surface  or  the  characteristic  pot- 
hole formation.  When  first  grubbed  it  crumbles  and  is  readily 
worked,  but  on  exposure  to  the  air  it  gradually  hardens,  owing 
to  the  deposition  of  carbonate  of  lime  following  evaporation  of 
the  moisture  held  in  the  interstices. 

The  growth  made  by  the  avocado  upon  this  rocky  land  is 
rather  remarkable ;  it  seems,  in  fact,  that  young  orchards  have 
done  better  around  Homestead,  where  the  rock  comes  to  the 
surface,  than  they  have  in  those  areas  north  of  Miami  where 
there  are  six  to  eighteen  inches  of  sand  on  top  of  the  rock. 
The  reason  for  this  may  lie  in  the  moisture-retaining  proper- 
ties of  this  soft  limestone;  the  roots,  which  are  always  close 
to  the  surface,  here  probably  are  kept  more  uniformly  supplied 
with  moisture  during  a  period  of  dry  weather  than  on  light 
sandy  soils  which  dry  out  rapidly. 

The  heavier  Florida  soils  seem  to  be  much  more  favorable 
to  the  growth  of  the  tree  than  light  sands.  A  yellowish  or 
brownish  subsoil  in  many  parts  of  Florida  indicates  good 
avocado  land.  The  avocado  prefers  a  moist  heavy  loam,  and 
the  closer  this  can  be  approached  the  better  will  be  the  results. 

The  soils  of  California  are  probably  more  nearly  ideal  for 
avocado  culture  than  any  of  those  in  southern  Florida.  Sandy 
loam,  which  is  abundant  in  the  southern  part  of  the  state,  pro- 
duces excellent  growth  and  is  giving  good  results.  Adobe 
does  not  seem  so  desirable,  yet  good  trees  have  been  grown 
upon  it  at  Orange. 

Red  clay  has  been  satisfactory  in  Cuba  and  Central  America, 
while  heavy  clay  where  well  drained  has  produced  good  trees 
in  Porto  Rico. 

Many  problems  connected  with  avocado  culture  remain 
to  be  solved.  One  of  the  most  important  is  the  adaptability 
of  the  tree  to  low  wet  lands  in  southern  Florida.  It  has  been 
the  general  opinion  that  avocados  should  not  be  planted  on 


30        MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

land  where  the  water-table  is  less  than  three  feet  below  the 
surface.  Krome  has  observed  groves  on  low  rock-land  which 
have  been  killed  or  badly  injured  by  overflows,  even  where  the 
water  came  scarcely  as  high  as  the  crown  roots  and  remained 
there  only  a  few  days.  In  several  plantings  on  marl  prairie, 
however,  experience  has  been  quite  different.  Trees  on  this 
type  of  land  have  been  submerged  twenty-four  hours  without 
damage  to  them.  On  the  low  islands  along  the  western  coast 
of  Florida,  salt  water  sometimes  floods  the  groves,  and  this 
has  proved  fatal  to  many  trees.  It  is  probable,  also,  that 
the  failure  of  one  or  two  plantings  on  this  coast  can  be  attrib- 
uted to  the  fact  that  the  water  which  stands  about  two  feet 
below  the  surface  of  the  land  is  saline  in  character. 

Until  more  experience  has  been  gained  regarding  the  adapta- 
bility of  the  avocado  to  low  flat  ground,  occasionally  subject 
to  overflow,  orchard  plantings  should  be  limited  to  lands 
where  the  water-table  is  three  feet  or  more  below  the  surface. 

In  California,  the  best  site  for  the  orchard  is  a  gently  slop- 
ing hillside,  or  level  ground  adjacent  to  a  slope.  If  of  this 
character,  and  well  drained  but  naturally  retentive  of  mois- 
ture, the  situation  may  be  considered  excellent.  In  regions 
subject  to  heavy  winds,  it  is  well  to  select  a  piece  of  ground 
which  is  sheltered  by  surrounding  elevations. 

CULTIVATION 

Regarding  the  best  time  to  plant  avocados  in  southern 
Florida,  Krome  says : 

"  I  have  planted  at  least  a  few  avocados  every  year  since  1905  and 
these  plantings  have  been  made  during  every  month  of  the  year. 
When  I  have  the  land  prepared  and  the  trees  available  I  do  not  hesi- 
tate to  plant  at  any  season  but  I  endeavor  to  make  my  arrangements 
so  that  all  of  my  main  settings  will  be  between  the  15th  of  Septem- 
ber and  the  20th  of  October,  i.e.  during  the  last  month  of  the  regular 
rainy  season,  after  the  hottest  weather  of  the  year  is  past.  When 
avocados  are  planted  in  the  spring  in  Florida  they  have  immediately 


THE  AVOCADO  31 

ahead  of  them  our  most  trying  months  of  drought,  March,  April 
and  usually  most  of  May.  During  this  period  the  plants  must  be 
watered  with  the  greatest  regularity  or  they  will  suffer.  Following 
the  dry  weather  of  our  spring  months  the  trees  have  the  benefit  of  the 
rainy  season  but  in  Florida  our  rains  are  quite  frequently  uncertain 
during  July  and  August  and  there  will  be  need  for  watering  any  trees 
planted  during  the  preceding  three  or  four  months.  For  the  past 
month  (June)  we  have  averaged  at  least  two  applications  of  water  per 
week  to  avocados  planted  during  March,  April  and  May.  These 
spring-planted  trees  must  also  withstand  the  sun's  rays  during  our 
season  of  greatest  heat  and  shading  is  usually  a  necessity  if  sun-scald 
is  to  be  prevented.  There  are  no  good  reasons  why  trees  thus  planted 
should  not  be  brought  through  to  fall  in  good  condition  but  it  requires 
a  great  deal  of  additional  work  and  expense  as  compared  with  trees 
planted  during  the  latter  part  of  September  or  first  half  of  October, 
when  rains  are  of  almost  daily  occurrence  and  the  plants  after  setting 
need  very  little  further  attention.  Furthermore,  spring-planted 
trees  very  seldom  make  sufficient  growth  over  those  planted  in  the 
fall  to  acquire  any  considerably  greater  degree  of  resistance  to  cold 
the  following  winter.  I  have  always  found  that  trees  planted  in  March 
fare  just  about  as  badly  as  those  planted  in  September  when  we  have 
severe  cold  the  next  winter." 


In  California  it  is  not  desirable  to  plant  earlier  than  March, 
because  of  danger  from  late  frosts.  April  and  May  are  good 
months,  and  November  planting  has  been  successful.  Plant- 
ing in  midsummer  is  to  be  avoided,  but  it  may  be  done  success- 
fully if  the  trees  are  carefully  shaded  and  watered  until  they 
have  become  established. 

Avocados  are  sometimes  interplanted  with  other  fruit-trees, 
such  as  grapefruit  and  mangos.  This  is  scarcely  to  be  recom- 
mended, since  avocados  require  different  cultural  treatment. 

In  Florida,  budded  avocados  are  planted  20  by  20  feet  (108 
to  the  acre)  to  26  by  26  feet  (64  to  the  acre),  some  growers 
preferring  to  have  the  trees  close  together  so  that  they  will 
soon  shade  the  ground,  others  desiring  to  give  more  room  for 
ultimate  development.  On  light  sandy  soil  the  trees  are 
usually  set  closer  than  on  heavy  soils,  20  by  20  feet  being  a 
suitable  distance  in  the  first  case,  24  by  24  in  the  second.  In 


32       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

California  they  should  not  be  spaced  closer  than  24  by  24  feet, 
making  75  to  the  acre ;  30  by  30  feet  (48  to  the  acre)  is 
preferable. 

Holes  for  planting  should  be  prepared  a  month  in  advance, 
with  a  small  quantity  of  fertilizer  incorporated  in  each.  Barn- 
yard manure  is  commonly  used  for  this  purpose  in  California, 
while  South  American  goat  manure  and  pulverized  sheep  manure, 
2  or  3  pounds  to  each  hole,  have  proved  satisfactory  in  Florida. 

In  planting,  the  tree  should  be  set  so  that  the  point  of 
union  between  the  bud  and  the  seedling  stock  is  slightly  above 
the  surface.  Deeper  planting  may  not  be  objectionable  in 
California,  but  in  Florida  shallow  planting  seems  to  be  best. 
A  liberal  watering  should  be  given  immediately  after  planting. 

Tillage,  mulching,  and  cover-crops. 

The  ground  around  the  young  trees  should  be  kept  liberally 
mulched  with  weeds,  straw,  barnyard  litter,  seaweed,  or  any 
coarse  material  which  is  not  injurious  and  will  not  pack  and 
form  a  layer  impervious  to  air  and  water.  Through  the  winter 
a  mulch  is  not  necessary  in  California,  but  in  Florida  it  has  been 
found  desirable,  in  some  sections  at  least,  to  maintain  one 
throughout  the  year.  In  Porto  Rico,  G.  N.  Collins  observed 
that  the  avocado  tree  was  seldom,  if  ever,  found  in  perfectly 
open  places,  with  the  bare  ground  around  the  roots  exposed 
to  the  sun.  While  this  principle  applies  more  particularly 
to  Florida  and  other  regions  distinctly  tropical  in  character, 
it  may  be  proved  to  hold  good  in  California  as  well.  Definite 
knowledge  on  this  point  is  still  lacking.  Up  to  the  present 
it  is  the  practice  of  many  California  orchardists  to  cultivate 
the  soil  regularly  after  each  irrigation,  as  with  citrus  fruits. 
Deep  cultivation  seems  to  produce  no  harmful  results  in  Cali- 
fornia, where  the  roots  go  far  down  into  the  soil,  but  in  southern 
Florida  it  must  be  practiced  with  caution.  In  this  region  the 
feeding  roots  extend  practically  to  the  surface,  and  deep  culti- 


THE   AVOCADO  33 

vation  destroys  many  of  them,  thus  cutting  off  a  large  part 
of  the  tree's  food  supply.  On  shallow  soils  the  most  healthy 
and  vigorous  trees  are  those  which  are  mulched.  The  mulch 
should  extend  at  least  two  feet  in  each  direction  from  the 
trunk  of  the  young  tree,  and  as  the  latter  increases  in  size 
and  its  roots  reach  out  on  all  sides,  the  mulch  must  be  en- 
larged to  be  always  a  little  wider  than  the  diameter  of  the  crown. 

Mulching  serves  two  purposes :  it  prevents  the  soil  from 
drying  out  rapidly,  and  it  protects  the  delicate  feeding  roots 
from  injury  due  to  excessive  heating  of  the  soil.  This  protec- 
tion is  of  particular  importance  in  Florida,  where  in  many 
places  the  land  is  sandy  and  becomes  exceedingly  hot  if  exposed 
to  the  sun. 

When  the  trees  are  of  mature  size,  the  shade  furnished  by 
their  own  foliage,  together  with  the  fallen  leaves  which  carpet 
the  ground,  aids  materially  in  maintaining  the  soil  in  good 
condition;  but  additional  loose  material,  especially  during 
the  summer,  is  highly  desirable. 

The  use  of  green  cover-crops  between  the  rows  is  decidedly 
beneficial,  but  they  must  not  be  brought  close  enough  to  the 
trees  to  rob  them  of  their  food.  In  Florida,  cowpeas  and 
velvet  beans  have  been  used  for  this  purpose,  cowpeas  being 
preferred.  A  clump  of  pigeon  peas  (Cajanus  indicus)  planted 
four  feet  to  the  south  of  each  young  tree  will  provide  shade 
during  the  first  summer  or  two,  serve  as  a  protection  from  wind, 
and  aid  in  enriching  the  soil.  In  California,  purple  vetch 
(View,  atropurpurea) ,  common  vetch,  and  the  other  cover- 
crops  used  in  citrus  culture  will  probably  prove  satisfactory. 
Up  to  the  present  time  they  have  not  been  extensively  tried 
in  connection  with  avocado  culture. 

Fertilizer. 

Little  systematic  attention  has  yet  been  given  to  this  subject. 
Not  only  is  the  question  difficult,  but  it  is  also  one  of  the  most 


34       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

important  in  connection  with  avocado  culture  in  Florida.  The 
following  extracts  from  a  paper  by  Krome,  published  in  the 
1916  Report  of  the  California  Avocado  Association,  present 
the  results  of  several  years  of  experimentation : 

"The  nature  of  the  plant  food  required  by  the  avocado  has  not 
been  very  satisfactorily  determined,  but  it  has  become  evident  that 
a  scheme  of  fertilization  must  be  worked  out  differing  considerably 
from  that  which  has  been  generally  adopted  for  citrus.  Broadly 
speaking  the  application  of  commercial  fertilizers  deriving  their  ele- 
ments of  plant  food  from  wholly  chemical  sources  has  not  proved 
successful.  In  many  instances,  through  lack  of  more  definite  infor- 
mation, growers  have  given  their  avocados  the  same  fertilizers  which 
they  have  used  on  their  citrus  trees.  Where  the  formulae  have  been 
those  most  frequently  applied  to  citrus,  with  nitrogen  derived  from 
sulphate  of  ammonia  or  nitrate  of  soda,  potash  from  sulphate  of 
potash,  and  phosphoric  acid  from  acid  phosphate,  the  results  with 
the  avocado  have  been  generally  unsatisfactory.  However,  when 
the  formula  used  has  been  of  the  type  known  as  'young  tree '  fertilizer, 
carrying  a  proportionately  higher  percentage  of  ammonia  largely 
derived  from  organic  sources,  better  effects  have  been  obtained. 

"  It  has  become  fairly  well  established  as  a  fact  that  of  two  avocado 
trees  of  the  same  variety,  one  which  is  well  nourished  and  kept  in 
growing  condition  during  the  entire  summer  and  fall  will  produce 
larger  and  finer  appearing  fruit  than  one  which  is  permitted  to  become 
more  or  less  dormant  through  lack  of  fertilizer,  but  it  is  quite  certain 
that  the  semi-dormant  tree  will  carry  its  fruit  without  dropping  for  a 
considerably  longer  time.  There  is  therefore  a  rather  delicate  adjust- 
ment to  be  made  in  order  to  bring  the  tree  into  condition  such  that 
it  will  hold  its  crop  until  late  in  the  season  and  at  the  same  time  will 
not  'go  back'  to  an  extent  that  will  be  seriously  detrimental  to  its 
further  development  or  jeopardize  the  crop  for  the  following  season. 

"Following  such  applications  of  fertilizer  as  are  made  to  restore 
the  tree  to  good  condition  after  it  has  passed  through  the  period  of 
bloom  and  fruit  setting  there  should  certainly  be  at  least  one  further 
fertilizing  during  the  summer  or  early  fall  to  provide  the  nourishment 
necessary  for  the  production  of  the  crop.  And  it  may  be  added  here 
that  the  drain  on  an  avocado  tree  in  bringing  its  fruit  to  maturity 
seems  to  be  vastly  greater  in  proportion  than  the  same  effort  on  the 
part  of  a  citrus  tree.  The  writer  cannot  vouch  for  the  soundness  of 
the  theory,  but  it  has  been  thought  that  this  is  probably  due  to  the 
different  character  of  the  fruit.  In  the  case  of  any  citrus,  water  con- 
stitutes a  large  percentage  of  the  fruit  either  by  weight  or  volume, 
while  with  the  avocado  the  proportion  of  oils  is  much  higher  and  it 


THE   AVOCADO  35 

would  seem  reasonable  that  to  supply  these  components  would  be  a 
heavier  draft  upon  the  tree.  At  any  rate  the  fact  is  certain  that  an 
avocado  tree  must  be  furnished  with  a  sufficiency  of  plant  food  if  it 
is  to  be  expected  to  produce  full  and  regular  crops. 

"Avocados  of  the  West  Indian  type  begin  to  ripen  in  Florida 
about  the  middle  of  July  and  the  heaviest  portion  of  the  seedling  crop 
matures  between  August  20th  and  October  10th.  At  that  period  the 
crop  from  Cuba  and  other  West  Indian  islands  is  likewise  being  shipped 
and  the  large  quantity  of  fruit  thus  thrown  on  the  market,  together 
with  the  fact  that  during  the  summer  and  early  fall  the  avocado  must 
compete  with  northern-grown  fruits  and  vegetables,  tend  to  force 
prices  so  low,  that  at  times  it  is  difficult  to  dispose  of  the  Florida 
seedlings  with  any  margin  of  profit.  After  the  middle  of  October 
the  price  of  avocados  begins  to  climb  and  during  November  and 
December  very  satisfactory  figures  are  usually  obtained.  For  this 
reason  the  large  plantyigs  of  budded  trees  which  have  been  made 
during  the  past  few  years  have  practically  all  been  of  late  maturing 
varieties  such  as  the  Trapp  and  Waldin.  These  varieties  mature 
their  fruit  so  that  it  may  be  picked  early  in  October  if  desired,  but 
under  proper  conditions  will  carry  at  least  a  portion  of  their  crop  into 
December  and  in  some  cases  until  well  along  in  January. 

"Just  how  late  in  the  season  an  application  of  fertilizer  can  be 
made  without  bringing  about  a  tendency  for  the  tree  to  mature  and 
drop  its  fruit  at  too  early  a  date  depends  somewhat  on  weather  condi- 
tions. Fertilizer  applied  to  Trapp  trees  about  the  middle  of  August 
of  the  season  just  passed,  apparently  had  no  detrimental  effect  as  to 
the  fruit  holding  well,  while  an  application  of  fertilizer  given  the  same 
trees  about  the  first  of  September  of  the  preceding  year  was  followed, 
within  a  few  weeks,  by  heavy  dropping  of  fully  matured  fruit.  The 
application  made  in  August  of  the  present  year  was  at  the  beginning 
of  several  weeks  of  dry  weather,  while  that  of  the  previous  season 
was  followed  by  heavy  rains  and  these  differences  in  moisture  probably 
had  considerable  to  do  with  the  effects  of  the  fertilizer. 

"This  second  problem  is  one  of  great  importance  to  the  Florida 
avocado  grower  as  between  December  1  and  December  15  the  value 
of  his  product  not  infrequently  more  than  doubles  and  the  premium 
to  be  gained  by  being  able  to  carry  his  fruit  until  the  latest  possible 
date  is  well  worth  his  very  best  efforts. 

"  It  is  our  plan  at  Medora  Grove  to  give  the  trees  a  heavy  fertilizing 
immediately  after  the  crop  has  been  picked  and  a  light  application 
about  the  first  of  February,  which  brings  them  to  their  blooming  stage 
in  good  condition,  quite  thoroughly  recuperated  from  their  fast  during 
the  fall. 

"This  program  provides  for  five  or  six  applications  of  fertilizer 
during  the  year,  which  is  probably  one  or  two  more  than  is  given  by 


36       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

most  growers,  the  difference  being  in  the  method  of  carrying  the  trees 
through  the  spring  period.  The  quantity  of  fertilizer  used  at  each 
application  varies  of  course  with  the  size  of  the  tree,  quantity  of  fruit 
it  is  carrying  and  the  analysis  of  the  fertilizer.  For  ten  year  old  trees 
as  high  as  25  pounds  at  a  single  application  has  been  used  with  good 
results.  For  four  year  old  trees,  bearing  their  first  crop,  four  applica- 
tions of  from  three  to  four  pounds  each,  one  of  four  and  one-half  and 
one  of  five  pounds  have  brought  the  trees  through  the  year  in  fine 
shape.  As  materials  from  which  fertilizers  suitable  for  avocados  may 
be  compounded,  cottonseed  meal,  castor  pomace,  tankage,  ground 
tobacco  stems  and  ground  bone  are  to  be  recommended,  with  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  nitrate  of  soda  used  as  a  source  of  nitrogen  when  quick 
results  are  sought  as  in  the  case  of  trees  which  have  'started  back.' 
Previous  to  the  war  scarcity  of  potash,  it  was  thought  advisable  to 
use  formulae  giving  from  four  to  six  per  cent  of  that  element,  but  the 
enforced  limitations  to  the  percentage  of  potash  obtainable  during 
the  past  two  years  has  had  no  apparent  ill  effects  upon  the  trees  or 
fruit  and  seemingly  a  range  of  from  zero  to  four  per  cent  will  provide 
all  the  potash  that  an  avocado  tree  requires  under  Florida  conditions. 
A  formula  that  has  given  good  results  is  built  up  of  cottonseed  meal, 
castor  pomace,  tankage,  and  ground  tobacco  stems,  analyzing  4  per  cent 
to  5  per  cent  ammonia,  6  per  cent  to  7  per  cent  phosphoric  acid  and 
2  per  cent  potash. 

"  The  trees  were  usually  cultivated  by  hoeing  three  times  each  year 
and  a  heavy  mulching  of  dead  grass  or  weeds  during  the  dry  winter 
season.  If  instead  of  the  dead  grass  a  mulching  of  compost  or  well 
rotted  stable  manure  is  used  the  results  are  even  more  satisfactory  and 
the  February  application  of  fertilizer  may  then  be  omitted  entirely." 

In  California,  stable  manure  has  been  practically  the  only 
fertilizer  used  up  to  the  present.  The  necessary  nitrogen 
can  be  obtained  from  this  source,  and  the  organic  matter 
added  to  the  soil  is  also  of  benefit. 

Irrigation. 

An  abundance  of  water  is  especially  important  during  the 
first  two  or  three  years  after  the  tree  is  planted,  if  rapid  healthy 
growth  is  to  be  maintained.  In  Florida,  particularly  in  sections 
where  the  soil  is  deep,  many  young  groves  have  in  the  past 
suffered  for  lack  of  water.  One  of  the  most  experienced  growers 
near  Miami  states  that  trees  which  have  had  abundant  irriga- 


THE  AVOCADO  37 

tion  are  as  large  at  four  years  of  age  as  non-irrigated  trees. at 
six  years.  Their  larger  size  enables  them  to  yield  commercial 
crops  earlier  than  non-irrigated  trees. 

In  California  it  is  the  general  practice  to  irrigate  avocados 
in  the  same  manner  as  citrus  fruits.  The  amount  of  water 
necessary  for  maximum  development  varies  considerably  on 
different  soils,  but  during  the  first  few  years  a  thorough  irrigation 
every  ten  days  during  the  dry  season  is  not  too  much. 

The  importance  of  an  abundance  of  moisture  in  the  soil  at 
the  time  the  fruit  is  setting  has  already  been  mentioned  in 
the  discussion  of  the  climatic  requirements  of  the  avocado. 
Several  crop  failures  in  Florida  have  been  blamed  on  unusually 
dry  weather  during  this  period.  A  drought  probably  does 
little  harm  if  it  occurs  when  the  trees  are  just  beginning  to 
bloom,  but  if  it  continues  the  flowers  are  likely  to  drop  and  the 
crop  to  be  a  failure.  This  has  been  the  experience  with 
Trapps  when  grown  on  deep  sand ;  on  heavy  soils,  which  are 
more  retentive  of  moisture,  the  danger  is  less. 

In  order  to  avoid  crop  failures  from  this  cause,  the  grower 
should  certainly  be  prepared  to  irrigate  at  the  time  the  fruit 
is  setting.  In  southern  Florida  this  is  usually  in  March  and 
April.  When  a  prolonged  dry  spell  occurs  just  at  this  time,  as 
is  sometimes  the  case,  two  or  three  thorough  irrigations,  a 
week  apart,  may  suffice  to  save  a  considerable  amount  of  fruit. 

In  California,  if  the  soil  is  allowed  to  become  too  dry  during 
the  hot  summer  months,  young  trees  are  frequently  given  a 
setback  from  which  they  are  slow  to  recover.  This  has  been 
observed  in  Florida  as  well,  particularly  on  deep  sandy  soils. 

The  method  of  applying  water  varies  in  different  regions. 
In  California  the  basin  system  is  commonly  used,  especially 
when  the  number  of  trees  to  be  irrigated  is  small.  Basins 
should  be  filled  with  coarse  strawy  manure  to  serve  as  a  mulch. 
In  many  orchards  the  trees  are  irrigated  by  the  furrow  system 
which  is  used  with  citrus  fruits,  the  soil  being  cultivated  after 


38       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

each  irrigation.  In  southern  Florida  other  methods  are  made 
necessary  by  the  fact  that  water  cannot  be  run  in  furrows  over 
the  sandy  soil.  Revolving  sprinklers,  placed  at  the  proper 
distance  so  that  all  the  ground  will  be  covered  by  their  spray, 
are  sometimes  employed.  Where  economy  of  water  is  a  factor, 
these  are  less  desirable  than  the  basin  system.  Taken  in  all, 
it  seems  that  the  best  method  of  irrigating  is  to  form  around 
the  tree  a  basin  as  wide  as  the  spread  of  the  branches  (or  wider 
during  the  first  two  years),  to  fill  it  with  weeds,  straw,  manure, 
seaweed,  or  other  loose  mulch,  and  then  to  apply  water  at 
least  once  in  two  weeks  when  the  rainfall  is  not  sufficient  to 
maintain  the  tree  in  good  growing  condition. 

Pruning. 

The  amount  of  pruning  required  by  the  avocado  depends 
largely  on  the  variety.  Some  make  short  stocky  growths  and 
form  shapely  trees  without  the  assistance  of  the  pruning- 
shears,  while  others  take  long  straggling  shapes  and  do  not 
branch  sufficiently  to  form  a  good  crown.  These  latter  must  be 
cut  back  heavily.  Trapp,  and  other  varieties  of  the  West 
Indian  race  in  general,  usually  make  low  stocky  trees,  branch- 
ing abundantly  and  forming  plenty  of  fruiting  wood.  With 
such  forms,  pruning  is  reduced  to  the  minimum,  consisting 
principally  in  removing  fruit-spurs  which  die  back  after  the 
crop  has  been  harvested,  and  in  the  occasional  cutting  back 
of  a  branch  to  produce  a  crown  of  symmetrical  form  and  good 
proportions.  Beyond  this  very  little  pruning  is  done  in 
Florida  orchards. 

With  the  Guatemalan  race,  more  training  is  often  necessary 
to  produce  a  tree  of  ideal  proportions,  since  some  varieties  tend 
to  make  long  unbranched  growths.  In  others  the  lateral 
branches  are  very  weak  and  scarcely  able  to  bear  their  own 
weight  if  allowed  to  develop  unhindered.  With  these,  care- 
ful attention  should  be  given  during  the  first  few  years  to  pro- 


THE   AVOCADO  39 

ducing  a  well  balanced  tree  capable  of  carrying  good  crops  of 
fruit. 

The  Mexican  race  usually  shows  a  tendency  to  grow  more 
stiffly  erect  than  the  others,  and  make  stout  rigid  branches 
which  are  capable  of  bearing  heavy  crops.  In  order  to  keep 
some  of  these  varieties  from  becoming  too  tall  and  slender, 
it  is  necessary  to  top  them  when  young,  perhaps  pinching  out 
the  buds  of  the  main  branches  later  on  to  induce  branching. 

It  is  not  desirable  to  have  the  crown  so  dense  that  light  will 
not  reach  all  parts  freely.  When  the  crown  is  too  thick,  fruit 
is  produced  only  on  its  outer  surface,  and  much  of  the  fruit- 
bearing  capacity  of  the  tree  is  thus  wasted. 

Thus  it  can  be  seen  that  no  specific  rules  for  pruning,  cover- 
ing all  varieties,  can  be  laid  down,  other  than  that  the  object 
should  be  to  produce  a  tree  having  a  broad,  strong,  well- 
branched  crown  of  good  proportions  and  great  fruiting  capacity, 
preferably  headed  low  (about  30  inches  above  the  ground),  in 
order  to  shade  the  soil  beneath  it.  After  the  tree  has  reached 
maturity  little  pruning  is  required,  provided  it  has  had  the 
benefit  of  careful  training  during  the  first  few  years.  Experi- 
ence along  this  line  is  meager,  however,  and  the  future  will 
bring  out  many  new  points  of  importance. 

In  top-working  old  seedlings,  it  is  often  necessary  to  cut  off 
large  limbs.  The  stubs  should  be  smoothed  off  and  covered 
with  a  coating  of  grafting-wax.  The  same  rule  applies  to 
cuts  made  in  the  course  of  ordinary  pruning  with  young  as  well 
as  old  trees.  When  secondary  branches  are  removed,  they 
should  be  cut  as  close  to  their  junction  with  the  main  branch 
as  possible,  and  the  cut  should  be  parallel  with  the  main  branch. 
The  cut  surface  should  be  treated  with  a  coating  of  grafting- 
wax.  Paint  is  sometimes  used  for  this  purpose,  but  in  Florida 
it  has  been  found  injurious,  especially  to  young  trees.  If 
the  stubs  are  not  waxed,  they  often  allow  fungi  to  start  and 
destroy  the  wood.  The  entrance  of  such  fungi  is  facilitated 


40       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

by  the  fact  that  the  pith  sinks  in  the  cut  ends  of  large  limbs, 
leaving  a  small  cavity  to  collect  water  and  maintain  the  moist 
conditions  which  are  so  favorable  to  fungous  growth. 

Opinions  differ  as  to  the  best  time  for  pruning.  In  Florida 
late  fall  and  winter,  November  to  February,  have  proved  suit- 
able. In  California  the  best  growers  seem  to  favor  spring  or 
fall.  According  to  Krome,  pruning  in  hot  weather  often 
results  in  serious  injury.  The  most  favorable  times  seem  to 
be  early  spring,  before  growth  has  commenced  and  before  the 
heat  of  summer,  and  autumn  after  hot  weather  is  past. 

PROPAGATION 

Avocados  do  not  come  true  from  seed ;  that  is,  a  tree  grown 
from  a  seed  of  the  Trapp  variety  will  not  produce  Trapp  fruits, 
although  it  may  produce  fruits  similar  in  character.  For 
commercial  purposes  it  is  necessary  to  propagate  the  trees 
by  budding  or  grafting,  in  order  to  insure  good  fruit  of  uniform 
quality  and  to  eliminate  sparse  bearers,  or  trees  otherwise 
undesirable. 

Seedling  avocados  are  often  grown,  especially  in  the  tropics. 
While  named  varieties  cannot  be  propagated  in  this  way,  if 
the  seed  is  taken  from  good  fruit  the  tree  which  it  produces 
is  likely  to  bear  such  fruit.  But  occasionally  seedling  trees 
do  not  bear,  and  some  have  other  undesirable  qualities,  so 
that  it  is  always  best  to  plant  a  budded  tree.  Seedlings  can 
only  be  recommended,  in  fact,  where  a  tree  is  desired  for  the 
dooryard  merely,  in  which  case  the  ornamental  appearance 
of  the  avocado  makes  it  eminently  satisfactory.  If  such  trees 
do  not  bear  well  no  special  loss  is  entailed. 

Since  1901,  when  George  B.  Cellon  first  budded  the  avocado 
commercially,  several  methods  of  vegetative  propagation  have 
been  applied  to  this  plant  by  nurserymen.  While  all  of  these 
have  been  successful  in  the  hands  of  certain  propagators, 


THE   AVOCADO  41 

shield-budding,  which  was  originally  used  by  Cellon,  has  proved 
the  most  generally  dependable,  and  is  now  employed  by  most 
nurserymen  in  California  and  Florida.  It  is,  therefore,  given 
major  consideration  here,  while  methods  of  grafting  are  de- 
scribed in  less  detail. 

Stock  plants. 

In  Florida  it  has  been  the  custom  to  bud  or  graft  West 
Indian  varieties  on  seedlings  of  the  same  race.  In  California 
the  Guatemalan  race  has  usually  been  budded  on  the  Mexican, 
in  the  belief  that  the  superior  hardiness  of  the  latter  would 
make  the  budded  tree  less  susceptible  to  cold  and  also  because 
seeds  of  the  Mexican  race  are  more  easily  obtainable.  Recently 
in  Florida  the  Guatemalan  has  been  budded  on  the  West  Indian, 
the  West  Indian  on  the  Mexican,  and  so  on  ;  and  these  experi- 
ments, although  not  extensive,  have  served  to  indicate  that  the 
question  of  stocks  is  of  great  importance,  and  demands  further 
investigation.  Not  only  does  it  appear  that  the  hardiness  of 
the  tree  may  in  a  measure  depend  on  the  nature  of  the  root 
stock,  but  the  congeniality  of  the  various  races,  when  budded 
on  each  other,  seems  to  differ.  Attempts  to  bud  the  West 
Indian  on  the  Mexican  have  produced  rather  indifferent  results 
in  Florida,  the  buds  making  a  poor  union  and  growing  very 
slowly.  The  Mexican  race  has  not  been  tried  on  the  West 
Indian  extensively,  but  this  practice  appears  to  succeed  better 
than  the  reverse.  The  Guatemalan  buds  well  on  the  West 
Indian,  but  is  perhaps  preferable  on  Guatemalan  roots. 

Seeds  are  usually  obtainable  most  abundantly  in  August  and 
September  in  Florida,  a  month  or  two  later  in  California,  having 
reference  to  the  West  Indian  race  in  the  former  state  and  the 
Mexican  in  the  latter.  These  two  races  are  those  generally 
used  for  seedling  stocks.  The  seeds  should  be  planted  soon 
after  removal  from  the  fruit,  although  they  are  viable  for  sev- 
eral weeks  if  kept  cool  and  dry.  Seeds  of  the  Mexican  race 


42       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

have  even  been  kept  for  three  or  four  months  in  good  condition, 
in  the  dry  climate  of  California. 

Previous  to  the  issuing  of  Quarantine  Order  No.  12  of  the 
Federal  Horticultural  Board,  prohibiting  the  importation  of 
avocado  seeds  from  Mexico,  many  thousands  were  imported 
annually  to  California  from  that  country.  In  shipping  these, 
the  best  results  were  obtained  when  the  seeds  were  removed 
from  the  fruit,  washed  immediately,  dried  in  the  shade,  and 
packed  loosely  in  wooden  boxes  without  the  addition  of  moist- 
ened sawdust,  charcoal,  sphagnum  moss,  or  other  material. 
The  percentage  of  loss  with  such  seeds  was  insignificant.  When 
shipping  seeds  from  moist  tropical  regions,  greater  difficulty 
is  experienced,  decay  being  more  troublesome.  Good  results 
are  sometimes  secured  by  shipping  in  slightly  dampened  char- 
coal, but  where  the  distance  is  not  too  great  the  best  method 
seems  to  be  to  wash  and  dry  the  seeds  and  then  pack  them 
loosely  in  wooden  boxes,  as  above  described. 

Seeds  are  planted  in  pots,  boxes,  flats,  or  in  the  open  ground. 
For  nursery  work  on  a  large  scale,  planting  in  flats  and  seed- 
beds has  given  excellent  results.  The  seedlings  are  transplanted 
almost  as  soon  as  they  have  sprouted.  In  California  seeds 
planted  in  the  seed-bed  during  autumn,  October  to  December, 
will  make  plants  six  to  twelve  inches  high  by  March  or  April, 
when  they  may  be  planted  out  in  the  field  in  nursery  rows. 

While  seedlings  are  sometimes  budded  in  pots  or  boxes,  field 
budding  is  more  satisfactory,  as  it  is  difficult  to  bring  pot-grown 
trees  into  the  vigorous  growth  essential  to  success  in  budding. 

Planting  in  the  field  should  be  done  in  California  as  soon  as 
danger  from  frost  and  cold  weather  is  past.  Nursery  rows 
should  be  3  to  4  feet  apart,  with  the  plants  18  inches  apart  in 
the  row  (or  about  12  inches  in  Florida).  Partial  shade  should 
always  be  given  the  young  plants  for  a  few  days  after  they 
are  set  in  the  open,  especially  if  they  have  been  sprouted,  as 
they  should  be,  under  a  lath-  or  slat-house.  In  Florida,  seeds 


THE  AVOCADO  43 

planted  in  August  may  be  set  out  in  the  field  in  November,  and 
should  make  trees  ready  to  bud  by  January  or  February, 
which  is  the  proper  season  for  budding  in  that  state. 

For  germinating  seeds,  a  light,  loose,  sandy  loam  is  prefer- 
able, pure  sand  sometimes  being  used  in  California  if  the  seed- 
lings are  to  be  transplanted  as  soon  as  they  have  germinated. 
Four-inch  pots  are  large  enough  for  seeds  of  the  Mexican  race, 
but  frequently  a  five-  or  six-inch  pot  is  necessary  to  accommo- 
date the  West  Indian.  In  Florida,  wooden  boxes  about 
6  inches  in  each  dimension  are  often  used,  while  in  California 
tin  cans  are  employed,  but  the  latter  are  much  less  desirable 
than  clay  pots.  When  planted  in  flats  or  seed-beds,  the  seeds 
may  be  placed  close  together.  The  pointed  end  of  the  seed, 
—  or  in  the  case  of  round  seeds,  the  end  which  has  been  toward 
the  stem  in  the  fruit,  —  should  be  uppermost,  and  it  is  usually 
allowed  to  project  above  the  surface  of  the  soil,  not  more  than 
four-fifths  of  the  seed  being  below  the  surface.  If  the  seed- 
coats  are  loose  and  come  off  easily,  it  is  well  to  remove  them 
before  planting. 

The  soil  should  be  kept  moist  while  the  seeds  are  germinat- 
ing. The  time  required  for  germination  varies  greatly,  sprouts 
sometimes  appearing  within  two  weeks  from  planting,  while 
in  other  instances  they  may  be  two  or  three  months  in  starting. 
A  month  is  the  average  time  in  warm  weather. 

Essential  features  of  bud  propagation. 

Shield-budding  is  most  successful  when  the  stocks  are  small 
and  full  of  vigor.  If  the  plants  are  once  allowed  to  cease  the 
rapid  thrifty  growth  with  which  they  spring  from  the  seed,  the 
wood  hardens,  sap  is  less  abundant,  and  if  the  bud  unites  at  all 
there  is  great  difficulty  in  forcing  it  into  growth.  Those  who 
do  not  devote  their  undivided  attention  to  the  propagation  of 
the  avocado  sometimes  allow  the  seedlings  to  get  into  this 
condition  before  they  attempt  to  bud  them,  and  as  a  result 


44       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 


failures  are  numerous.  It  must  be  stated  unreservedly  that 
shield-budding  of  the  avocado,  to  be  successful,  must  be  made 
the  subject  of  careful  and  intelligent  study  on  the  part  of  the 
nurseryman,  who  must  exercise  constant  vigilance  to  keep  the 

stock  plants  in  perfect  condi- 
tion. If  this  is  done,  and  bud- 
wood  is  intelligently  selected, 
success  is  within  reach,  but  the 
number  of  failures  from  neglect 
or  ignorance  of  these  two  points 
might  well  be  enough  to  dis- 
courage the  beginner  from  at- 
tempting to  bud  the  avocado. 
It  is  only  through  the  closest 
application  to  minute  details 
that  real  success  in  budding 
avocados  can  be  achieved,  and 
it  may  truthfully  be  said  that 
those  who  have  produced 
budded  trees  in  quantity  have 
invariably  been  men  who  have 
devoted  their  best  efforts  to 
the  work  and  made  it  a  pains- 
taking study. 


FIG.  3.  Shield-budding  the  avo- 
cado. On  the  left,  a  bud  properly  in- 
serted ;  above  the  knife  blade,  two 
buds  of  proper  size  and  shape  ;  and  on 
the  right,  bud  wood  with  good  "  eyes." 
The  method  of  wrapping  the  inserted 
bud  is  shown  in  Fig.  11. 


Budding  (Fig.  3). 

As  soon  as  the  stock  plants 
are  large  enough  to  receive  the 
bud  conveniently  they  should 
be  budded,  provided  the  season 
is  favorable.  In  southern  Florida  the  best  months  for  budding 
the  West  Indian  race  are  November,  December,  January,  and 
February.  Budding  can  be  continued  into  March  with  success, 
but  after  warm  weather  commences  the  percentage  of  failures 


THE  AVOCADO  45 

is  too  high  to  make  the  undertaking  profitable.  In  California 
the  best  time  is  as  soon  as  the  sap  has  begun  to  flow  freely.  This 
usually  occurs  late  in  April  or  early  in  May,  at  which  season 
there  is  a  period  of  three  or  four  weeks  when  budding  is  more 
successful  than  at  any  other  time  of  the  year.  After  this  short 
period,  however,  avocados  are  in  active  growth  and  the  proper 
sort  of  budwood  is  difficult  to  obtain,  hence  it  is  best  to  wait 
until  the  growth  has  hardened  sufficiently  to  make  good  bud- 
wood.  This  will  usually  be  late  in  June  or  in  July,  when  bud- 
ding can  be  recommenced  and  continued  until  autumn.  October 
and  November  are  good  months,  although  not  quite  so  favor- 
able as  the  first-named  period  in  the  spring.  Buds  inserted  in 
autumn  frequently  push  out  within  five  or  six  weeks  and  must 
be  protected  carefully  during  the  ensuing  winter.  Unless  the 
work  is  done  very  late  in  the  autumn,  the  buds  cannot  be  held 
dormant  until  spring. 

Selection  of  the  proper  type  of  budwood  requires  more  ex- 
perience and  judgment  than  any  other  feature  of  avocado 
propagation,  since  the  character  of  the  buds  differs  widely 
among  varieties  of  the  same  race.  Some  kinds  make  such 
poor  budwood  that  not  more  than  50  per  cent  of  the  buds  will 
grow  even  for  the  most  skillful  propagator ;  in  other  varieties, 
such  as  Taft  and  Fuerte,  95  per  cent  of  the  buds  can  frequently 
be  made  to  develop  into  trees.  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that 
the  budwood  should  be  of  recent  growth,  not  soft  enough  to 
snap  on  bending  but  beginning  to  mature.  In  early  spring,  bud- 
wood  must  be  obtained  from  mature  growth  of  the  previous 
fall  and  early  winter.  In  summer  it  must  be  obtained  from 
the  current  season's  growth.  In  some  sorts,  such  as  Fuerte, 
very  young  budwood  can  be  used  successfully,  but  that  which 
has  commenced  to  mature  is  usually  better.  Buds  can  some- 
times be  cut  from  the  tips  of  the  branchlets  and  from  6  to  12 
inches  from  the  tip,  according  to  the  variety  and  the  condi- 
tion of  the  wood.  Buds  which  have  broken  into  growth  should 


46       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

be  avoided,  in  the  case  of  most  varieties,  at  least;  so  should 
those  from  which  the  outer  bud-scales  have  dropped,  as  this 
is  indicative  of  old  wood,  and  such  buds,  when  inserted,  will 
frequently  "drop  their  eyes"  and  leave  a  blind  shield  from 
which  a  tree  cannot  develop. 

To  insert  the  buds,  an  incision  is  made  in  the  stock,  as  close 
to  the  ground  as  convenient,  either  in  the  form  of  a  T  or  an 
inverted  T.  No  particular  advantage  seems  to  be  derived  from 
either  form  of  incision,  both  being  used  quite  successfully. 
The  bark  should  not  be  opened  by  using  the  ivory  end  of  the 
budding-knife,  as  this  injures  the  delicate  tissues  below;  if 
the  bark  does  not  separate  from  the  wood  readily  enough  to 
allow  the  bud  to  be  pushed  in  easily,  the  stock  is  too  dry  to  be 
budded.  The  propagator  should  always  aim  to  have  the  stock 
plants  in  such  vigorous  condition  that  he  can  force  the  bud  into 
the  incision  with  very  slight  pressure  and  without  loosening  the 
bark  with  his  knife.  The  most  skillful  budders,  when  making  the 
horizontal  cut  of  the  incision,  turn  the  knife  blade  forward 
dexterously,  forcing  the  bark  away  from  the  stock  and  leaving 
a  sufficient  opening  in  which  to  insert  the  point  of  the  bud. 
The  latter  is  then  pushed  in  very  gently  and  wrapped  imme- 
diately with  a  strip  of  waxed  cloth,  raffia,  soft  cotton  twine,  or 
plain  tape.  This  should  be  wound  firmly  around  the  stock,  from 
the  bottom  upward,  and  fastened  securely  at  the  upper  end, 
above  the.  incision,  by  slipping  the  end  through  the  last  loop  and 
drawing  it  down  tightly. 

In  cutting  the  buds,  an  extremely  thin-bladed,  sharp-edged 
budding-knife  should  be  used,  and  it  should  never  be  allowed  to 
become  the  least  bit  dull.  A  razor-strop  is  usually  worn  by 
budders,  attached  to  the  belt;  after  ten  or  fifteen  buds  have 
been  cut,  the  knife  is  given  a  few  strokes  on  the  strop  to  keep  it 
in  perfect  condition.  It  should  be  the  aim  of  the  budder  to 
cut  the  bud  with  one  sliding  stroke  of  the  knife,  keeping 
the  blade  as  nearly  parallel  with  the  budstick  as  possible,  so 


THE   AVOCADO  47 

that  the  cut  surface  will  be  flat  and  not  rounded  at  the  ends. 
Buds  which  are  gouged  out  do  not  fit  snugly  on  the  stock.  It 
is  well  to  cut  the  buds  somewhat  larger  than  citrus  buds,  1 
inch  being  the  minimum  length,  and  1^  inches  the  ideal  for 
most  varieties.  This  must  vary,  of  course,  with  the  size  of  the 
stock  and  budwood,  large  stocks  sometimes  taking  a  bud  2 
inches  long. 

Opinions  differ  as  to  the  best  material  for  wrapping,  some 
preferring  waxed  cloth,  while  others  have  found  plain  cloth 
tape  equally  good,  and  still  others  use  raffia  successfully. 
Waxed  cloth  is  doubtless  the  safest,  but  the  objection  to  it 
has  been  that  in  hot  weather  the  wax  melts  and  works  its 
way  into  the  bud,  sometimes  killing  it.  This  can  be  avoided 
by  using  a  compound  of  1  pound  beeswax  and  -J-  pound  rosin. 
The  cloth,  preferably  a  cheap  grade  of  bleached  muslin,  should 
be  torn  in  strips  6  inches  wide,  made  into  rolls  1  inch  in  di- 
ameter, and  boiled  for  fifteen  minutes  in  this  mixture.  It  may 
then  be  kept  until  needed,  when  it  is  torn  into  narrow  strips  of 
the  proper  width  and  length  for  tying  buds. 

Three  weeks  after  insertion  the  buds  should  have  united  with 
the  stock,  and  the  wraps  must  be  loosened  or  they  will  soon  bind 
the  stock,  if  growth  is  active.  They  should  not  be  removed 
until  the  end  of  six  weeks  or  two  months.  In  order  to  force 
the  bud  into  growth,  the  tree  should  be  topped  at  the  time  the 
wrap  is  first  loosened,  3  or  4  inches  being  removed  from  the  tip. 
The  axillary  buds  along  the  stem  will  then  break  into  growth ; 
some  of  these  should  be  allowed  to  develop  for  a  while,  to  keep 
up  an  active  flow  of  sap.  In  another  four  or  five  weeks  the  top 
should  be  cut  back  farther,  but  a  few  axillary  buds  still  left 
on  the  seedling  to  grow  and  maintain  the  flow  of  sap.  If  the 
stock  is  cut  back  too  heavily  the  first  time,  the  eye  may  fall 
from  the  bud,  leaving  a  blind  shield.  Lopping,  as  practiced 
with  many  other  fruits,  is  not  altogether  successful  with  the 
avocado. 


48       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

As  soon  as  the  bud  has  made  a  growth  of  3  or  4  inches,  it 
should  be  tied  back  to  the  stem  of  the  seedling  with  raffia. 
Later  it  must  be  stake-trained,  and  when  it  has  reached  a  height 
of  24  to  30  inches  it  should  be  forced  to  branch  and  form  a 
shapely  top.  The  stub  which  remains  from  the  seedling  stock 
should  not  be  cut  off  until  the  bud  has  developed  to  the  height 
of  one  foot.  In  California  it  is  usually  considered  best  to 
remove  the  stub  in  winter ;  it  should  be  cut  off  just  above  the 
bud,  and  the  cut  surface  covered  with  grafting-wax,  or  shellac 
made  with  alcohol  and  a  little  rosin.  Common  paint  should 
not  be  used  for  this  purpose. 

Field-grown  trees,  after  they  have  reached  the  proper  size, 
are  either  lifted  and  put  into  pots  or  boxes,  where  they  are  held 
until  established  and  then  planted  in  the  field;  or  they  are 
balled  at  any  time  after  they  have  gone  dormant  in  late  winter, 
and  heeled-in  under  a  plant-shed,  where  they  can  be  kept  until 
spring  and  then  planted  out.  In  Florida,  field-grown  plants 
are  usually  lifted  and  set  in  wooden  boxes  5  X  5  X  12  inches  in 
size.  As  soon  as  they  are  placed  in  these  boxes,  they  must 
be  set  in  partial  shade  and  watered  copiously.  When  they 
have  become  established,  which  will  be  within  a  month  or 
six  weeks,  they  can  be  transplanted  to  the  orchard. 

Transplanting  with  bare  roots  has  not  proved  generally 
satisfactory  in  California.  Regarding  his  experience  with  it 
in  Florida,  Krome  says : 

"  This  may  become  one  of  the  recognized  methods  of  planting  and 
under  certain  conditions  it  has  many  advantages  over  setting  either 
boxed  or  balled  plants.  Two  years  ago  I  moved  about  four  hundred 
seedlings  with  semi-bare  roots  and  lost  only  three  trees  in  the  process. 
The  trees  were  two  year  stocks  averaging  four  feet  in  height  grown 
in  a  'red-flat'  at  my  own  grove.  We  began  transplanting  during 
July  but  most  of  the  trees  were  moved  in  September.  We  waited 
until  the  trees  had  reached  a  dormant  state  between  flushes  and  then 
defoliated  them  and  pruned  back  the  most  tender  growth.  We  moved 
them  only  after  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  when  the  greatest  heat 
of  the  day  was  over,  digging  only  as  many  trees  as  could  be  carefully 


THE   AVOCADO  49 

planted  during  the  remainder  of  that  day.  Before  digging  we  wet 
down  the  surrounding  soil  until  it  puddled  easily.  The  trees  were 
dug  with  as  much  of  the  root  systems  as  could  well  be  handled  and  the 
roots  were  immediately  wrapped  in  wet  burlap  and  the  trees  placed 
in  the  shade.  We  did  our  defoliating  and  pruning  back  considerably 
ahead  of  the  digging  and  found  that  trees  which  had  been  cut  back  for  a 
week  or  more  and  had  just  started  a  new  growth  could  be  moved  as 
successfully,  and  in  fact  grew  off  better,  than  those  which  had  been 
more  recently  defoliated. 

"  Since  then  we  have  carried  on  experiments  in  this  line  at  our 
nursery,  using  trees  with  roots  entirely  bare,  and  have  had  a  very 
low  percentage  of  loss.  Upon  our  recommendation  a  number  of 
avocado  growers  in  South  Bade  have  tried  the  method  with  a  limited 
number  of  trees  and  without  exception  have  expressed  themselves  as 
intending  to  make  all  their  plantings  hereafter  with  bare-root  trees. 

"  The  two  essentials  seem  to  be  getting  the  tree  into  proper  condition 
before  moving  from  its  original  position  and  plenty  of  water  after 
transplanting." 

Grafting. 

One  method  of  grafting  has  been  employed  extensively 
for  the  production  of  nursery  stock  in  Florida,  and  an- 
other has  been  used  on  a  limited  scale  for  top-working  old 
trees. 

The  system  extensively  used  is  a  modified  form  of  the  side- 
graft  employed  with  other  plants.  The  seeds  are  germinated 
in  a  seed-bed;  when  the  sprouts  have  reached  a  height  of  5 
or  6  inches  the  plants  are  dug  and  laid  on  the  bench.  A  cut 
an  inch  long  is  made  on  one  side  of  the  sprout,  just  above  the 
seed,  and  a  thin  section  of  the  stem  removed,  exposing  the 
tissues.  The  cion  is  then  taken  from  the  tip  of  a  very  small 
branchlet,  preferably  one  which  has  not  fully  matured.  It 
should  be  about  1  inch  long,  and  provided  with  one  or  two 
axillary  buds  as  well  as  the  terminal.  It  is  trimmed  on  one 
side  to  a  tapering  point  at  the  lower  end,  and  this  cut  surface 
is  placed  against  the  cut  on  the  stock,  after  which  it  is  bound 
carefully  in  place.  The  plant  is  then  potted,  placed  under 
partial  shade,  and  carefully  watered  from  day  to  day.  After 


50       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

a  union  is  effected,  the  top  of  the  seedling  is  removed  and  the 
cion  allowed  to  develop. 

Top-working  old  trees. 

Large  numbers  of  seedling  avocados  have  been  planted  in 
Florida  and  California.  Many  of  these  produce  fruits  inferior 
in  quality  to  the  best  budded  varieties,  while  quite  a  number 
do  not  produce  at  all.  It  is  often  desired,  therefore,  to  convert 
such  avocados  into  budded  trees  of  choice  varieties,  and  this 
can  easily  be  done. 

Several  methods  of  top-working  are  employed,  the  most 
satisfactory  one  being  shield-budding.  When  trees  are  to  be 
top-worked  by  this  means,  they  should  be  cut  back  in  November 
or  December  in  Florida,  February  or  March  in  California, 
removing  three-fourths  of  the  main  limbs  a  foot  or  two  from 
their  union  with  the  trunk,  the  remainder  being  left  to  keep  the 
tree  in  vigorous  condition.  The  limbs  should  be  cut  off  with  a 
sharp  saw,  to  avoid  splitting  or  tearing  on  the  lower  side.  The 
stubs  should  be  covered  with  a  good  coating  of  grafting-wax. 

When  growth  has  commenced,  in  early  spring,  numerous 
sprouts  will  appear  around  the  upper  ends  of  the  stubs.  Only 
three  or  four  of  the  strongest  should  be  allowed  to  remain  on 
each  stub,  and  when  these  have  reached  the  diameter  of  one's 
little  finger,  they  may  be  budded  in  the  same  manner  as  seed- 
lings, with  a  large  bud,  preferably  from  growth  which  is  not 
mature.  The  exceedingly  vigorous  growth  of  these  sprouts 
makes  success  much  more  certain  than  in  budding  seedlings 
in  the  nursery.  Because  of  the  rapid  growth,  it  is  necessary  to 
loosen  the  wraps  frequently  to  keep  them  from  binding.  They 
should  not  be  removed  entirely  before  the  buds  have  developed 
to  a  length  of  6  or  8  inches.  The  sprouts  rising  from  the  upper 
side  of  the  stub  form  stronger  unions  with  the  latter  than  do 
those  from  the  lower  side. 

Cleft-grafting,  another  method  employed  in  top-working  old 


THE   AVOCADO  51 

trees,  is  most  successful  with  seedlings  two  to  four  years  old, 
but  can  also  be  used  on  older  trees.  While  it  has  not  been 
practiced  extensively,  it  has  given  good  results  in  the  grove  of 
W.  J.  Krome,  at  Homestead,  Florida.  Krome  has  worked  out 
the  method  here  described. 

The  trees  to  be  grafted  should  be  sawed  off  2  to  4  feet  from 
the  ground,  according  to  size,  this  work  being  done  during 
November  and  December  in  Florida,  though  it  has  been  success- 
ful as  late  as  March.  With  two-year-old  seedlings  the  trunk 
itself  is  sawed  off;  on  larger  trees  it  is  well  to  go  above  the 
trunk  and  saw  off  the  main  branches  a  foot  from  their  union 
with  the  trunk.  A  cleft  is  then  prepared  in  the  stump,  not  by 
splitting  it  with  a  grafting  tool  as  is  usually  done  with  fruit- 
trees  in  the  North,  but  by  using  a  saw.  After  sawing  to  a  depth 
of  4  to  8  inches,  depending  on  the  size  of  the  stub,  the  saw  is 
removed  and  a  soft  wooden  wedge  is  inserted  in  the  top  of  the 
cleft  and  driven  down  until  the  lower  end  of  the  cleft  begins 
to  split.  This  produces  the  steady  pressure  necessary  to  hold 
the  cion  firmly  in  place. 

Cions  are  cut  from  wood  of  larger  size  and  more  mature  growth 
than  is  used  for  budding,  branches  about  \  inch  in  diameter 
being  preferable.  The  cion,  which  should  be  6  to  9  inches  long, 
is  trimmed  on  two  sides  throughout  the  lower  half  to  a  slender 
tapering  point  at  the  bottom.  It  is  then  placed  in  position  in 
the  cleft  and  forced  downward  until  the  upper  end  of  the  cut 
surface  is  flush  with  the  top  of  the  stub.  One  cion  is  placed  in 
the  cleft  at  each  side  of  the  stub,  nearly  even  with  the  surface 
of  the  bark  on  the  outside.  The  wedge  which  has  been  used 
to  keep  the  cleft  open  is  now  partly  withdrawn  until  the  cions 
are  clamped  firmly  by  the  pressure  of  the  two  halves  of  the 
stub,  when  it  is  sawed  off  flush  with  the  top  of  the  stub  and 
allowed  to  remain  in  place  so  that  the  pressure  on  the  cions 
will  not  become  too  great. 

After  the  cions  are  properly  placed,  the  cleft  is  filled  with 


52       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

plastic  grafting-wax  so  that  air  is  excluded.  Wax  is  also  rubbed 
over  the  outside  of  the  cion  where  it  fits  into  the  stub.  The 
stub  is  then  firmly  wound  with  strips  of  waxed  cloth,  covering 
the  top  as  well  as  the  sides.  A  collar  made  of  builder's  paper 
is  then  tied  around  the  stub,  extending  an  inch  above  the  tops 
of  the  cions.  This  collar  is  filled  with  sand.  Particular  atten- 
tion must  be  given  to  insuring  a  layer  of  sand  between  the  cions 
and  the  side  of  the  collar,  since  otherwise  the  latter  transmits 
heat  from  the  outside  and  kills  the  cions.  Vent  holes  should 
be  made  in  the  paper  near  the  top  of  the  stub  to  drain  off  the 
water  which  collects  within  the  cup. 

Nothing  more  remains  to  be  done  until  the  cions  have  had 
time  to  unite  with  the  stock.  Two  or  three  months  after  growth 
has  commenced  the  sand  may  be  removed  and  the  collar  taken 
off.  As  a  rule,  only  the  stronger  of  the  two  cions  develops. 
Both  may  start  to  grow  but  one  eventually  outstrips  the  other 
in  most  cases,  and  the  weaker  one  succumbs. 

This  method  appears  to  produce  vigorous  trees.  Its  use  has 
been  attended  by  excellent  results  at  Homestead. 

THE  CROP 

The  age  at  which  budded  avocado  trees  come  into  bearing 
varies  with  the  different  races,  and  also  among  the  varieties 
of  the  same  race.  Furthermore,  experience  indicates  that 
many  kinds  will  bear  at  an  earlier  age  on  the  sandy  soils  of 
southern  Florida  than  on  the  heavier  lands  of  California.  In 
the  latter  state,  budded  trees  of  the  Mexican  race  frequently 
come  into  bearing  the  second  or  third  year  after  they  are  planted 
in  the  orchard ;  the  Guatemalan  race  shows  greater  range  among 
the  numerous  varieties,  some,  for  example  the  Lyon,  commenc- 
ing to  bear  within  eighteen  months  or  two  years  from  the  time 
of  budding,  while  others,  for  example  Taft,  have  not  borne 
earlier  than  the  fourth  or  fifth  year.  Trapp  and  several  other 


THE  AVOCADO  53 

West  Indian  varieties  have  been  grown  for  four  or  five  years  in 
southern  California  without  bearing  fruit.  They  are  sometimes 
injured  by  cold,  but,  allowing  for  setbacks  from  this  cause,  the 
West  Indian  race  does  not  fruit  so  early  in  California  as  in 
Florida.  The  Mexican  race  usually  fruits  at  an  early  age  in 
both  regions. 

As  a  rule,  budded  trees  of  the  West  Indian  race  are  precocious 
in  Florida.  Trapp  is  remarkable  in  this  respect;  and  in 
addition  it  has  a  strong  tendency  toward  over-production  which 
must  be  checked  during  the  first  few  years  by  thinning  the 
fruit.  Trapp  trees  will  often  produce  a  few  fruits  the  year  after 
they  are  planted  in  the  orchard,  and  at  three  years  from  planting 
may  begin  to  yield  commercial  crops.  If  grown  under  irrigation, 
\  so  that  their  development  has  been  rapid,  the  trees  may  be 
allowed*  to  carry  thirty  or  forty  fruits  the  third  year  after 
planting,  but  during  th^first  year  it  is  best  to  remove  all 
fruits,  and  the  second  yearSiot  more  than  half  a  dozen  should 
be  allowed  ID  mature.  \WThen  grown  without  irrigation,  the 
tree  is  rarely  large  enough  at  three  years  of  age  to  carry  more 
than  twelve  or  eighteen  fruits  without  injury  to  itself,  unless 
soil  conditions  have  been  very  favorable.  The  mistake  is 
often  made  of  allowing  Trapps  to  over-bear  when  young,  with 
the  result  that  they  die  back  following  the  fruiting  season. 

Seedlings  vary  even  more  than  budded  trees  in  the  age  at 
which  they  begin  fruiting.  The  Mexican  race  often  fruits  at 
two  or  three  years  from  seed.  The  Guatemalan  race,  in  Cali- 
fornia, has  occasionally  fruited  at  three  or  four  years,  but  more 
commonly  comes  into  bearing  at  six  or  seven  years.  The  West 
Indian  race,  in  Florida,  does  not  usually  come  into  bearing 
earlier  than  five  or  six  years  from  seed. 

In  California,  no  figures  showing  the  yield  of  a  budded  orchard 
have  as  yet  been  obtained,  but  in  Florida,  where  the  avocado 
industry  is  older,  interesting  data  are  available.  While  the 
figures  given  may  not  apply  to  both  regions  and  will  certainly 


54       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

vary  greatly  with  different  sorts,  they  serve  at  least  to  show 
what  may  be  expected  from  one  variety  under  certain  conditions. 

According  to  George  B.  Cellon,  a  Trapp  tree  seven  to  ten 
years  old  will  yield,  under  good  cultural  treatment,  between 
five  and  ten  crates  of  fruit,  counting  forty  fruits  to  the  crate, 
which  is  about  the  average  pack.  The  returns  from  one  of  the 
largest  groves  near  Miami  for  two  seasons,  however,  show  an 
average  of  only  one  and  one-half  crates  to  a  tree.  This  is  a 
low  yield,  and  should  certainly  be  exceeded.  Krome,  who  has 
kept  careful  crop  records,  finds  that  his  Trapp  trees  at  five 
years  of  age  yield  one  to  four  crates  a  tree,  two  and  a  half 
crates  being  the  average.  Charles  Montgomery  of  Buena 
Vista,  Florida,  has  obtained  yields  of  about  the  same  amount, 
his  estimate  being  that  a  mature  Trapp  grove  should  produce 
500  crates  to  the  acre. 

The  yield  of  other  varieties  in  Florida  is  not  so  well  known, 
since  none  except  Pollock  has  been  planted  to  any  extent,  and 
even  this  variety  is  grown  in  comparatively  small  numbers. 
In  regularity  of  bearing  Trapp  excels  Pollock,  the  latter  showing 
a  tendency  to  fruit  in  alternate  years. 

In  Guatemala  and  Mexico,  many  seedling  trees  of  the 
Guatemalan  race  tend  to  produce  good  crops  only  in  alternate 
years.  The  feature  is  not  so  marked  in  trees  of  the  West 
Indian  race  which  have  been  observed,  nor  in  those  of  the 
Mexican ;  nor  is  it  true  that  all  Guatemalans  possess  it.  It  is 
possible  that  over-production  one  season  results  in  a  crop 
failure  the  following  one,  and  it  is  probable  that  unfavorable 
cultural  conditions  have  something  to  do  with  the  matter. 

SEASON 

The  season  during  which  avocados  are  obtainable  in  southern 
Florida  has  been,  until  very  recently,  from  July  until  January. 
A  few  Trapps  may  hang  on  until  February  or  even  as  late  as 


THE  AVOCADO  55 

March,  but  the  fruit  is  so  scarce  after  the  early  part  of  January 
that  it  need  scarcely  be  reckoned  with.  The  earliest  varieties 
of  the  West  Indian  race  begin  to  ripen  in  July,  while  the  bulk  of 
the  seedling  crop  matures  in  August  and  September.  During 
this  season  avocados  are  cheap,  and  the  markets  of  the  North 
are  receiving  shipments  from  Cuba,  but  there  is  a  certain  demand 
for  high-class  fruit  even  during  the  summer,  and  such  varieties 
as  Pollock  are  profitably  grown  in  a  small  way.  It  has  always 
been  recognized,  however,  that  the  most  profitable  avocados 
are  those  which  can  be  marketed  in  winter,  for  not  only  is  the 
cheap  seedling  fruit  out  of  the  way  at  that  time,  but  the  markets 
of  the  North  are  not  filled  to  overflowing  with  peaches, 
plums,  grapes,  and  other  standard  fruits. 

It  is,  therefore,  the  late  Trapps  which  have  been  the  most 
profitable  in  Florida,  and  the  constant  search  has  been  for  even 
later  varieties  which  would  make  it  possible  to  supply  the 
markets  during  late  winter  and  early  spring.  Such  have  not 
been  found  among  those  of  the  West  Indian  race,  but  the  Guate- 
malan meets  this  demand,  and  varieties  of  this  race  will,  in 
all  probability,  soon  be  planted  extensively  in  Florida.  The 
Guatemalan  kinds  which  have  already  fruited  at  Miami  and 
elsewhere  have  served  to  indicate  that  the  season  during  which 
this  race  will  ripen  is,  roughly  speaking,  November  to  May. 

In  California  a  given  variety  of  the  Guatemalan  race  ripens 
one  to  two  months  later  than  in  Florida,  so  far  as  present 
experience  goes.  The  season  of  this  race  in  California  extends 
from  January  or  February,  when  the  earliest  sorts  appear  in  the 
market,  to  autumn.  Following  the  Guatemalans,  the  Mexican 
varieties  mature,  their  season  in  general  being  October  to 
January,  although  there  are  some  kinds  which  mature  a  few 
fruits  in  spring.  Thus  it  can  be  said  that  there  is  never  a  day 
when  ripe  avocados  are  not  obtainable  in  California. 

While  the  Mexican  race  has  received  little  attention  in 
Florida,  it  seems  likely  to  become  of  considerable  value  for.  the 


56       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

cooler  sections  of  the  state,  now  that  varieties  of  good  size  and 
quality  are  obtainable.  Chappelow  has  been  in  bearing  at 
Miami  for  some  years,  maturing  there  in  June  and  July,  which 
is  considerably  earlier  than  in  California. 

In  Cuba  it  is  said  'that  trees  growing  on  dry  soils  will  hold 
their  fruits  longer  than  those  growing  on  low  moist  land. 
Occasional  seedling  trees  (West  Indian  race)  are  found  through- 
out Cuba  which  have  the  reputation  of  carrying  their  fruits 
until  Christmas  or  even  later.  Such  trees  are,  of  course, 
highly  profitable  to  their  owners,  since  avocados  are  in  great 
demand  in  Habana  during  the  winter  months,  and  the  supply 
at  present  is  limited. 

PICKING,  PACKING,  AND  MARKETING 

Avocados  are  picked  best  with  orange  clippers.  The  stem  is 
usually  swollen  just  above  the  point  of  attachment  with  the 
fruit;  it  should  be  severed  with  the  clippers  immediately 
above  this  swollen  portion.  In  order  to  supply  the  early 
markets,  avocados  are  sometimes  picked  before  they  are  fully 
mature,  a  custom  which  should  be  discouraged.  Immature 
fruits  are  certain  to  be  inferior  in  flavor,  and  should  they  fall 
into  the  hands  of  those  who  were  trying  the  avocado  for  the  first 
time  they  would  be  certain  to  give  a  bad  impression.  Trapps 
are  usually  left  on  the  tree  as  long  as  possible,  in  order  to  obtain 
the  high  prices  which  late  fruit  commands;  when  they  begin 
to  change  from  bright  green  to  yellowish  green  they  must  be 
picked  or  they  will  drop.  If  they  are  picked  only  a  day  or  two 
before  they  would  drop,  they  are  sure  to  ripen  in  transit  and 
reach  the  market  in  an  over-ripe  condition.  To  prevent  this, 
Cellon  advises  that  questionable  fruits  be  laid  aside  for  twenty- 
four  hours ;  if  at  the  end  of  this  time  they  are  still  firm,  they 
may  safely  be  packed  for  shipment. 

The  standard  package  for  avocados  in  southern  Florida  is  the 


THE   AVOCADO  57 

tomato  crate,  which  measures  about  12  X  12  X  24  inches. 
It  is  sometimes  used  with  a  partition  in  the  center,  sometimes 
without.  Excelsior  is  placed  above  and  below  each  layer  of 
fruits  as  a  cushion,  and  is  stuffed  around  them  freely  to  hold 
them  in  place  and  prevent  bruising.  Some  growers  wrap  each 
fruit  in  tissue-paper,  but  the  wisdom  of  this  practice  is  doubtful. 
The  fruits  heat  more  quickly  when  wrapped,  and  as  heating 
greatly  hastens  the  ripening  process  it  should  be  avoided  as 
much  as  possible.  Avocados  must  not  be  packed  under  such 
great  pressure  as  oranges,  more  care  being  necessary  in  nailing 
on  the  top  of  the  crate  to  avoid  crushing  the  fruits. 

The  number  of  fruits  to  a  crate  varies  from  twenty-three  to 
fifty-four  with  Trapp,  the  average  being  about  forty.  Pollocks 
run  from  eighteen  to  thirty-six  to  a  crate,  while  seedlings  run 
from  twenty-eight  to  ninety.  Quotations,  f.  o.  b.  southern 
Florida,  are  sometimes  made  by  crate,  sometimes  by  dozen 
fruits.  The  following  figures  on  Trapps  are  those  quoted  by 
one  of  the  principal  shippers  at  Miami  during  the  past  several 
years : 

First  week  in  October,  54s  (that  is,  fruits  which  pack  54  to 
the  crate),  75  cents  a  dozen ;  50s,  85  cents ;  46s,  $1 ;  36s,  $1.30 ; 
28s,  $1.75;  23s,  $2.  After  November  first  the  price  is  in- 
creased on  all  sizes,  as  follows:  50s,  $1.50  a  dozen;  46s,  $2; 
36s,  $3.  At  Thanksgiving  the  prices  vary  from  $3  to  $4  a 
dozen  for  24s,  36s,  and  46s,  and  about  Christmas  they  advance 
to  $4  to  $6  a  dozen. 

Pollocks  are  quoted  during  August  as  follows :  36s,  75  cents 
a  dozen;  28s,  $1;  24s,  $1.50;  18s,  $2.  The  quotations  on 
high-grade  seedling  fruits  at  the  same  time  are  as  follows: 
50s  to  60s,  60  cents  a  dozen ;  46s,  75  cents ;  36s,  $1 ;  28s,  $1.50. 

Prices  on  Trapps  a  crate  vary  from  about  $2  in  early  October 
to  as  high  as  $36  for  the  last  few  crates  at  the  end  of  the  season 
in  February ;  these  figures  are  f .  o.  b.  southern  Florida.  From 
one  of  the  principal  groves  near  Miami  the  entire  crop  has  been 


58       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

marketed  for  several  years  at  an  average  net  price  of  $5.25  a 
crate  averaging  forty  fruits.  The  average  return  from  1400 
crates  shipped  from  another  grove  was  $5.50  a  crate. 

Trapps  have  been  shipped  from  southern  Florida  to  all  parts 
of  the  United  States.  A  few  years  ago  one  grower  sent  small 
consignments  every  day  during  a  large  part  of  the  season  to 
Seattle,  Washington,  and  did  not  receive  a  complaint  of  a 
crate  received  in  bad  order.  These  shipments  were  on  the 
road  eight  days,  and  were  not  sent  in  cold  storage.  It  is  the 
general  practice  to  ship  from  Florida  by  express.  The  shipping 
qualities  of  Trapp  are  much  better  than  those  of  the  average 
seedling. 

At  present  most  of  the  Florida  Trapp  crop  goes  to  the 
markets  of  the  eastern  United  States,  Washington,  Philadel- 
phia, New  York,  and  Boston  each  taking  a  good  share.  Some 
growers  have  shipped  heavily  to  Chicago  and  other  points  in 
the  Middle  W^st,  and  small  shipments  go  to  the  Pacific  Coast 
each  year. 

The  production  in  California  has  not  yet  become  great 
enough  to  permit  of  commercial  shipments  to  eastern  markets, 
the  crop  being  consumed  locally.  Since  most  of  the  returns  up 
to  the  present  time  are  based  on  the  crop  from  the  parent 
seedling  tree  of  each  variety,  they  are  of  little  value  to  show  the 
probable  profits  from  a  budded  orchard  of  the  same  sort.  The 
most  remarkable  record  which  has  been  made  by  a  commercial 
planting  of  budded  trees  is  that  of  J.  T.  Whedon  at  Yorba 
Linda.  Whedon's  planting  of  the  Fuerte  variety,  containing 
fifty  trees  (less  than  one  acre),  produced  a  crop  of  fruit  when 
five  years  old  which  sold  for  $1700. 

PESTS  AND  DISEASES 

In  the  early  stages  of  many  horticultural  industries  insect 
pests  and  fungous  diseases  are  not  troublesome,  but  as  the 


THE  AVOCADO  59 

industry  develops  its  enemies  become  more  numerous.  So  it 
has  been  with  the  avocado.  During  the  first  few  years  in  which 
this  fruit  was  planted  commercially  in  Florida  little  injury  was 
caused  by  parasites,  but  recently  it  has  been  necessary  to  com- 
bat vigorously  the  insects  which  prey  on  the  tree,  and  also 
several  fungous  diseases. 

In  California  the  avocado  has,  up  to  the  present,  been  com- 
paratively free  from  the  attacks  of  insect  and  fungous  pests; 
yet  several  insects  have  made  their  appearance  in  the  orchards 
and  must  be  watched  carefully  lest  they  become  so  numerous 
as  to  cause  serious  harm. 

Thrips  and  red-spider  are  the  most  common  insects  which 
attack  the  avocado  in  Florida.  Red-banded  thrips  (Heliothrips 
rubrocinctus  Giard.)  and  the  greenhouse  thrips  (Heliothrips 
hcrmorrhoidalis  Bouche)  feed  on  the  foliage,  sometimes  causing 
much  damage.  Both  these  species  are  exceedingly  small, 
soft-bodied,  fringed-winged  insects,  with  piercing  mouth-parts 
by  means  of  which  they  puncture  the  epidermis  and  extract  the 
juices  from  the  leaves.  They  are  most  destructive  in  early 
spring,  their  numbers  being  greatly  reduced  when  the  summer 
rains  commence.  Spraying  with  nicotine  solutions  has  been 
quite  effective  in  controlling  them. 

The  red-spider  (Tetranychus  mytilaspidis  Riley)  also  does 
considerable  damage  during  the  spring  months.  This  insect, 
which  is  scarcely  larger  than  a  pin  point,  can  be  detected  on  the 
foliage  without  the  aid  of  a  magnifying  glass  because  of  its 
bright  red  color.  It  feeds  on  the  avocado  by  piercing  the  leaf 
tissues  and  extracting  the  plant  juices.  Often  it  becomes  so 
abundant  as  to  cause  the  leaves  to  assume  a  brownish,  sickly 
appearance.  It  occurs  commonly  in  California  as  well  as 
in  Florida,  but  has  not  yet  been  reported  as  attacking  avocados 
in  California.  Lime-sulfur  mixtures  have  been  used  success- 
fully in  combating  this  insect.  For  citrus  trees,  H.  L.  Quayle 
recommends  commercial  lime-sulfur,  dry  sulfur  and  hydrated 


60       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

lime,  and  distillate  emulsion.  These  may  all  prove  to  be 
effective  with  the  avocado  as  well. 

Among  the  scale  insects  which  commonly  attack  the  avocado, 
the  most  important  are  the  black  scale  (Saissetia  olea?  Bern.), 
and  a  soft  white  scale  (Pulwnaria  pyriformis  CklL),  the  latter 
being  a  serious  pest  in  Florida.  Severe  infestations  of  the  black 
scale  are  occasionally  found  on  old  seedling  trees  in  California, 
but  this  insect  has  not  yet  become  a  pest  in  the  young  avocado 
groves  of  that  state.  The  wax  scale  (Ceroplastes  floridensis 
Comst.)  is  occasionally  found  on  avocados  in  Florida,  but  rarely 
requires  combative  measures.  All  of  these  scale  insects,  as 
well  as  a  white  fly  ( Trialeurodes  floridensis  Quaint.),  which  has 
become  troublesome  on  some  of  the  Florida  Keys,  can  probably 
be  controlled  by  the  use  of  oil  sprays. 

The  citrus  mealy-bug  (Pseudococcus  citri  Risso)  has  been 
reported  on  the  avocado  in  Ventura  County,  California,  but  it 
is  not  known  to  have  caused  extensive  damage.  The  avocado 
mealy-bug  (Pseudococcus  nipce  Mask.),  which  is  a  serious  pest 
in  Hawaii,  has  been  found  in  southern  Florida  groves.  It 
sometimes  becomes  very  troublesome.  D.  F.  Fullaway  of 
Hawaii  recommends  that  it  be  controlled  by  spraying  with  oil- 
emulsions. 

The  presence  of  the  avocado  weevil  (Heilipus  lauri  Boh.) 
in  California,  where  it  was  probably  introduced  from  Mexico  in 
avocado  seeds,  caused  the  Federal  Horticultural  Board  to 
prohibit  the  importation  of  seeds  of  the  Mexican  race  from 
Mexico  and  Central  America.  This  insect  is  a  small  black 
beetle  which  tunnels  in  the  seeds,  and  is  said  to  do  considerable 
damage. 

Other  seed  weevils  attack  the  avocado  in  various  parts  of 
the  tropics.  H.  S.  Barber  describes  the  more  important  ones, 
so  far  as  they  are  known,  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Entomological 
Society  of  Washington,  March,  1919.  Heilipus  pittieri  Barber, 
from  Costa  Rica,  is  similar  to  H.  lauri.  Conotrachelus  persece 


THE  AVOCADO  61 

Barber  does  great  damage  to  avocados  in  Guatemala.  Its  larvae 
have  been  found  in  avocado  seeds  sent  to  the  United  States, 
but  it  is  believed  the  species  has  not  become  established  in  this 
country.  Once  thoroughly  established,  the  seed  weevils  are 
difficult  to  exterminate,  hence  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  they  will 
not  gain  a  foothold  in  this  country. 

In  Guatemala,  Trioza  koebeki  Kirkaldy  (and  perhaps  other 
species)  produces  leaf-galls  on  the  avocado,  often  in  such  great 
numbers  as  seriously  to  affect  the  health  of  the  tree. 

In  addition  to  these  insects,  a  number  of  others  have  been 
reported  as  attacking  the  avocado  in  various  parts  of  the  tropics. 
These  include  numerous  scale  insects,  both  armored  and  un- 
armored,  several  borers,  and  the  well-known  Mediterranean 
fruit-fly  (Ceratitis  capitata  Wied.) ;  the  better-known  species 
are  listed  in  the  Manual  of  Dangerous  Insects  published  by  the 
Department  of  Agriculture. 

In  the  dry  climate  of  California,  fungous  parasites  give  the 
avocado  grower  comparatively  little  trouble,  but  in  Florida 
and  in  many  parts  of  the  tropics  they  may  require  stringent 
combative  measures. 

The  following  extracts  from  a  paper  by  H.  E.  Stevens,  pub- 
lished in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Florida  State  Horticultural 
Society  for  1918,  cover  the  situation  as  regards  fungous  pests 
in  Florida  as  it  exists  at  the  present  time  : 

"  Leaves  and  frequently  fruits  of  the  avocado  are  attacked  by  a 
fungus  which  is  probably  a  species  of  Gloeosporium.  The  affected 
leaf  is  usually  attacked  at  the  tip,  and  the  disease  gradually  spreads 
until  the  greater  part  of  the  blade  is  involved,  when  the  leaf  falls. 
Severe  attacks  may  cause  considerable  defoliation  of  trees  and  result 
in  the  death  of  young  terminal  twigs.  Fruits  may  be  attacked  when 
small,  in  which  case  severe  shedding  may  follow.  If  the  more  mature 
fruits  are  attacked,  a  brown  spotting  is  produced  and  the  skin  may  crack. 

"  Another  common  type  of  injury,  frequently  noted  on  the  fruits, 
is  referred  to  as  anthracnose  by  some  of  the  growers.  This  type  of 
injury  is  very  similar  to  melanose  of  citrus  fruits  in  general  appearance. 
It  is  superficial  and  appears  in  the  form  of  dark  reddish  brown  caked 


62       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

masses  on  the  surface  of  affected  fruits.  The  markings  are  hard, 
compact,  and  the  surface  is  cracked  or  broken.  The  injury  may 
cover  only  a  part  or  the  whole  surface  of  the  fruit.  It  makes  an  un- 
sightly fruit,  but  apparently  does  not  affect  the  quality.  The  disease 
is  apparently  caused  by  a  fungus,  perhaps  a  Gloeosporium  or  a  closely 
related  species. 

"  Another  fungus,  a  species  of  Colletotrichum,  is  often  observed  in 
diseased  spots  on  leaves  and  fruits.  This  fungus  is  closely  related  to 
Gloeosporium  and  the  injuries  with  which  it  is  associated  resemble  those 
caused  by  the  latter  fungus.  It  is  probably  the  cause  of  some  of  the 
injuries  that  are  classed  as  anthracnose. 

"  In  the  control  of  these  leaf  and  fruit  spots,  Bordeaux  mixture 
has  given  satisfactory  results  where  applied  in  time.  As  soon  as  the 
injuries  begin  to  appear,  spraying  should  be  made  and  continued  until 
the  disease  is  checked.  Two  or  three  applications  may  be  necessary, 
made  at  intervals  of  two  or  three  weeks.  If  the  fruit  is  near  maturity, 
it  is  advisable  to  substitute  ammoniacal  solution  of  copper  carbonate 
for  the  Bordeaux  mixture,  to  prevent  any  disagreeable  stain  that  may 
result  from  the  use  of  the  latter.  Aside  from  spraying,  all  dead  wood 
should  be  kept  out  of  the  trees,  as  this  is  likely  to  harbor  these  fungi 
from  one  season  to  the  next. 

"Avocado  scab  is  of  more  than  ordinary  interest,  owing  to  its  close 
connection  with  citrus  scab,  and  the  fact  that  it  has  come  into  existence 
within  the  past  three  or  four  years.  It  is  in  all  respects  a  new  disease 
that  has  had  its  beginning  in  Florida. 

"  Scab  is  chiefly  a  disease  of  the  tender  growth,  and  at  present 
it  is  found  more  abundantly  in  the  nurseries,  where  it  is  particularly 
severe  on  seedling  plants.  It  also  attacks  budded  varieties  in  the 
nursery.  The  disease  has  been  found  on  young  and  old  bearing  trees 
in  the  groves,  affecting  the  leaves,  and  in  a  few  cases  the  injury  was 
observed  on  fruits.  At  present  it  is  more  common  in  the  nurseries, 
but  it  may  soon  prove  a  serious  pest  in  the  groves. 

"  Scab  forms  definite  spots  or  patches  on  the  young,  tender  leaves 
and  shoots,  and  severe  attacks  may  cause  the  foliage  to  curl  or  become 
distorted.  The  more  mature  leaf  tissue  is  not  affected,  but  old  leaves 
will  be  found  bearing  spots  that  were  formed  when  the  tissue  was 
young.  The  spots  are  usually  small,  raised,  circular  to  irregular, 
purplish  brown  to  dark  in  color,  and  may  vary  from  a  sixteenth  to  an 
eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  They  may  appear  scattered  over  the 
surface,  or  several  may  grow  together,  forming  irregular  patches. 
The  spots  penetrate  the  leaf  tissue,  and  they  are  visible  on  both  sides. 
They  are  usually  more  prominent  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf,  in 
which  case  the  under  surface  of  the  spot  will  be  slightly  bulged  and 
marked  by  a  discolored  area.  The  centers  of  the  spots  are  composed  of 
dead  cells,  more  or  less  spongy  in  character  and  brownish  in  color. 


THE  AVOCADO  63 

In  the  earlier  stages  the  surfaces  may  show  a  fuzzy,  whitish  growth  — 
the  fruiting  parts  of  the  fungus.  The  surfaces  of  older  spots  are  darker 
in  color  and  frequently  covered  with  a  dark  webby  fungous  growth. 
On  young  shoots  and  twigs  the  spots  appear  more  elevated,  small, 
oval,  dark  purplish  brown  to  black,  and  have  comparatively  smooth 
surfaces.  This  same  type  of  spot  is  observed  on  the  fruits. 

"It  is  plainly  evident  that  the  avocado  scab  fungus  is  none  other 
than  Cladosporium  citri,  which  causes  citrus  scab.  The  two  fungi 
agree  in  structure  and  growth  habits,  and  both  are  parasitic  on  citrus. 

44  Only  tentative  control  measures  for  avocado  scab  can  be  sug- 
gested at  the  present  time.  Spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  for  the 
disease  in  the  nursery  has  given  good  results  in  some  cases,  in  others 
less  satisfactory.  If  the  new  growth  can  be  protected  while  it  is 
putting  out,  the  disease  may  largely  be  avoided.  The  sprayings 
should  be  made  when  the  foliage  begins  to  put  out,  and  continued  until 
the  leaves  are  nearly  developed.  The  1  1  50  Bordeaux  mixture  may 
be  applied  at  intervals  of  ten  days  or  two  weeks,  or  often  enough  to 
keep  the  young  foliage  well  protected.  The  fungus  develops  more 
rapidly  during  cool  weather  where  moist  conditions  are  provided. 
Shade  and  a  crowded  condition  of  the  trees  also  seem  to  favor  the 
development  of  the  scab." 

Many  growers  in  southern  Florida  who  have  planted  the 
Trapp  avocado  have  been  troubled  by  the  trees  dying  back 
following  the  production  of  a  heavy  crop  of  fruit.  Krome 
of  Homestead  has  given  this  subject  much  study,  and  writes 
as  follows  regarding  it  in  the  1916  Report  of  the  California 
Avocado  Association : 

"  Avocado  trees  of  the  West  Indian  race,  when  in  good  condition  of 
growth,  are  prone  to  put  on  a  tremendous  bloom  from  which  a  setting 
of  fruit  is  apt  to  result  so  heavy  as  to  be  entirely  beyond  the  carrying 
capacity  of  the  tree.  Following  this  abnormal  effort  there  is  often  a 
period  of  apparent  exhaustion  during  which  the  tree  seems  to  realize 
that  it  has  'bitten  off  more  than  it  can  chew,'  and  to  be  seeking  the 
best  method  to  recoup  from  its  over  exertion.  This  is  a  critical  time 
in  the  life  history  of  the  tree  and  calls  for  intelligent  handling  on  the 
part  of  the  grower.  If  left  to  its  own  devices  the  tree  will  endeavor 
to  carry  the  over  crop,  draining  upon  its  reserves  until  its  vitality  has 
been  seriously  impaired.  Evidences  of  this  condition  are  usually  very 
apparent.  The  tree  drops  a  large  portion  of  its  leaves,  the  younger 
branches  change  in  color  from  a  dark  green  to  a  saffron  yellow  and  no 
new  growth  is  put  on.  Lack  of  sufficient  foliage  to  provide  proper 


64       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

shade  often  results  in  serious  sunburning  of  the  more  tender  branches, 
and  the  low  state  of  vitality  lays  the  tree  particularly  liable  to  the 
inroads  of  disease,  especially  of  the  anthracnose  fungus  which  seldom 
loses  such  an  opportunity  for  making  an  attack.  Finally  the  tree  is 
compelled  to  drop  practically  its  entire  crop  of  fruit  and  is  left  in  a 
condition  which  means,  at  the  very  best,  a  set-back  of  two  seasons  ifl^ 
its  development  and  not  infrequently  results  in  its  actual  death. 

"To  obviate  overblooming,  particularly  in  the  case  of  young  trees, 
is  very  difficult,  for  the  better  the  cultural  condition  of  the  tree,  the 
more  likely  this  is  to  occur.  The  usual  procedure  has  been  to  thin 
the  over  crop  of  fruit  and  this  method  of  handling  works  quite  satis- 
factorily provided  the  set-back  to  the  tree  has  not  already  been  brought 
about  through  the  excessive  bloom.  However,  the  avocado  requires 
a  longer  period  than  most  fruits  between  the  first  appearance  of  the 
bloom  and  the  setting  of  the  fruit  and  it  often  happens  that  the  damage 
to  the  tree  has  made  considerable  advance  before  relief  by  stripping 
can  be  obtained.  In  this  event  removal  of  the  entire  crop  and  further 
careful  attention  is  necessary. 

"  In  an  effort  to  overcome  this  difficulty,  I  have  during  the  past  two 
seasons  resorted  to  frequent  applications  of  fertilizer,  in  order  to  offset 
the  heavy  drain  upon  the  vitality  of  the  trees  during  the  blooming 
period.  In  the  spring  of  1916,  following  a  season  favorable  to  growth, 
the  avocado  trees  at  Medora  Grove  began  to  bloom  about  the  middle 
of  March.  Immediately  afterward  a  light  application  of  fertilizer, 
carrying  ammoniates  from  readily  available  sources  was  made.  The 
bloom  was  the  heaviest  known  in  a  number  of  years  and  persisted  until 
about  the  middle  of  April.  Between  April  15th  and  20th,  another 
light  application  of  the  same  fertilizer  was  made  and  this  was  followed 
by  a  third  application  the  latter  part  of  May,  when  a  fertilizer  some- 
what higher  in  phosphoric  acid,  largely  derived  from  low  grade  tank- 
age, was  used.  As  a  result  of  this  treatment  a  full  crop  of  fruit  was 
set  and  in  most  cases  carried  through  to  maturity  without  damage  to 
the  trees.  When  an  over  crop  was  set  at  first,  as  a  rule  dropping  took 
place  without  a  reduction  in  vitality,  until  the  proper  carrying  capacity 
had  been  reached,  and  the  remainder  of  the  crop  was  matured.  In  a 
few  cases  stripping  was  necessary,  but  among  nearly  two  thousand 
trees  of  varying  ages,  not  more  than  eight  or  ten  showed  any  appre- 
ciable damage." 


In  both  California  and  Florida,  avocados  sometimes  crack 
open  while  hanging  on  the  tree.  This  has  occurred  in  varieties 
of  the  Guatemalan  and  Mexican  races,  but  is  most  common  in 
the  latter.  The  cracks  are  usually  situated  towards  the  apex 


THE  AVOCADO  65 

of  the  fruit,  and  are  often  very  extensive.  W.  R.  Home,  H.  S. 
Fawcett,  and  others  have  noted  the  presence  of  several  fungi 
in  the  cracks  and  the  flesh  beneath  them,  but  up  to  the  present 
it  is  believed  that  these  fungi  are  secondary,  and  not  the  cause 
of  cracking. 

RACES  AND  VARIETIES 

The  avocados  cultivated  in  the  United  States  are  classified 
horticulturally  in  three  races :  the  West  Indian,  the  Guate- 
malan, and  the  Mexican.  The  West  Indian  and  Guatemalan 
races,  so  far  as  can  be  judged  at  present,  are  two  expressions  of 
one  botanical  species,  Persea  americana,  while  the  Mexican 
race  represents  a  distinct  species,  Persea  drymifolia. 

Horticultural  varieties  of  the  avocado,  when  propagated 
from  seed,  do  not  reproduce  the  parent  fruit  in  every  detail. 
Seedlings  from  a  round  green  fruit  of  the  West  Indian  race  may 
produce  fruits  oblong  or  pyriform  in  shape,  and  red  or  purple 
in  color,  varying  from  the  parent  in  numerous  other  ways  as 
well.  But  these  seedlings  will  always  be  like  their  parents  in 
certain  respects,  because  they  belong  to  the  same  race  and  will 
reproduce  the  racial  even  though  not  the  individual  char- 
acteristics. 

To  use  the  definition  of  H.  J.  Webber,1  "  Races  are  groups  of 
cultivated  plants  that  have  well-marked  differentiating  char- 
acters, and  propagate  true  to  seed  except  for  simple  fluctuating 
variations."  Technically  speaking,  the  Mexican  avocados 
should  not  be  called  a  race,  since  they  really  represent  a  species ; 
the  West  Indian  and  the  Guatemalan,  however,  do  not  appear 
to  differ  from  each  other  except  in  minor  characters. 

The  classification  of  avocados  into  these  three  races  has  been 
useful,  inasmuch  as  it  brings  together  all  those  varieties  which 
have  several  characteristics  in  common.  In  fact,  the  mere 

1  In  the  Standard  Cyclopedia  of  Horticulture. 


66       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

statement  that  an  avocado  belongs  to  the  West  Indian,  Guate- 
malan, or  Mexican  race  gives  one  an  idea  of  the  relative  hardi- 
ness, season  of  ripening,  and  commercial  character  of  the  fruit. 
The  botanical  standing  of  the  cultivated  races,  as  at  present 
understood,  and  the  characters  which  serve  to  distinguish 
them  horticulturally,  are  shown  in  the  following  key : 

1.  Leaves  anise-scented ;   skin  of  fruit  thin  (rarely  more  than  ^ 

inch  in  thickness)  Persea  drymifolia 

MEXICAN  RACE  of  horticulture 

2.  Leaves  not  anise-scented;    skin  of  fruit   thicker  (from  -fa  to  i 

inch  in  thickness)  Persea  americana 

a.  Fruit  summer  and  fall  ripening;     skin  usually  not 
more  than  TV  inch  thick,  leathery  in  texture. 
WEST  INDIAN  RACE 

6.  Fruit  winter  and  spring  ripening;     skin  tk  to  |  inch 
thick,  woody  in  texture. 
GUATEMALAN  RACE 

One  variety  cultivated  in  the  United  States,  the  Fuerte, 
appears  to  be  a  hybrid  between  the  Mexican  and  Guatemalan 
races.  Others  of  similar  origin  are  likely  to  appear  at  any 
time,  hence  it  is  desirable  to  establish  a  group  to  include 
hybrids. 

The  avocados  of  the  West  Indian  race  have  been  developed 
in  the  tropical  lowlands ;  the  Guatemalan  race,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  a  product  of  the  highlands.  At  intermediate  eleva- 
tions varieties  appear  which  belong  to  neither  of  these  races, 
but  possess  some  of  the  characters  of  each.  These  intermediate 
forms  cannot  be  classified  with  accuracy. 

In  selecting  varieties  for  commercial  planting,  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind,  first  of  all,  that  the  tree  must  be  vigorous  and  t 
hardy  enough  to  grow  successfully  in  the  particular  location 
which  the  planter  has  in  view.  Secondly,  it  must  in  time  pro- 
duce sufficiently  large  crops  of  marketable  fruit  to  make  its 
culture  commercially  profitable.  It  is  not  necessary  that  it 


THE  AVOCADO  67 

be  very  precocious;  it  is  noticeable,  in  fact,  that  precocious 
varieties  often  fail  to  make  vigorous  trees.  It  is  more  desirable 
to  have  the  tree  devote  itself  during  the  first  three  years  to 
the  development  of  an  extensive  root-system  and  a  well- 
branched  crown  capable  of  withstanding  the  drain  imposed  by 
the  production  of  heavy  crops  of  fruit  than  to  have  its  growth 
limited  and  its  vitality  exhausted  by  premature  fruiting. 
Thirdly,  the  fruit  itself  must  be  given  consideration  from  a 
commercial  standpoint.  Attractiveness,  flavor,  shipping  qual- 
ities, season,  and  other  important  characteristics  should  be 
considered  in  respect  to  the  market  it  is  proposed  to  supply. 
Naturally,  good  shipping  quality  can  be  sacrificed  to  some 
other  point  if  the  fruit  is  for  local  use,  while  it  is  essential  if  the 
fruit  is  destined  for  distant  markets.  The  flavor  and  quality 
of  the  flesh  should  be  as  good  as  possible,  and  the  seed  should 
not  be  unduly  large. 

More  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  varieties  have  been  propa- 
gated in  the  United  States  up  to  the  present  tune.  The  larger 
part  of  these  originated  as  seedlings  in  California  and  Florida ; 
the  remainder  have  been  introduced  from  Mexico,  Guatemala, 
Cuba,  the  Bahamas,  Hawaii,  and  a  few  other  regions. 

Of  this  large  number  not  more  than  a  dozen  are  likely  to  be 
planted  ten  years  hence.  Indeed,  most  of  them  have  already 
been  discarded.  New  varieties  are  originating  every  year, 
however,  and  the  introduction  of  promising  sorts  from  foreign 
countries  is  receiving  much  attention.  It  is  only  by  testing  a 
large  number  of  varieties  from  all  of  the  important  avocado 
regions  of  the  tropics  that  the  best  available  kinds  for  commer- 
cial cultivation  can  be  obtained. 

It  is  not  desirable  to  burden  such  a  work  as  this  with  descrip- 
tions of  all  the  avocados  which  have  been  propagated.  It  is 
sufficient  to  include  the  more  important  ones  which  are  at  the 
present  time  being  planted  commercially.  For  descriptions 
of  minor  varieties,  and  for  information  regarding  the  behavior 


68       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

and  value  of  new  introductions,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
annual  reports  of  the  California  Avocado  Association.  In  1917 
this  organization  issued  Circular  No.  1,  "Avocado  Varieties 
Recommended  for  Planting  in  California,"  the  suggestions  con- 
tained in  which  have  done  much  to  eliminate  from  considera- 
tion numerous  inferior  sorts.  The  varieties  recommended  in 
this  circular  are  as  follows,  the  arrangement  being  according 
to  season  of  ripening  in  California : 

Spring  varieties 

Fuerte,  Spinks,  Blakeman,  and  Lyon 

Summer  varieties 

Spinks,  Blakeman,  Lyon,  Dickinson,  and  Taf  t 

Fall  varieties 

Taft,  Dickinson,  and  Sharpless 

Winter  varieties 
Sharpless,  Puebla,  and  Fuerte 

Several  of  these  varieties  may  be  superseded  within  a  short 
time  by  others  which  are  now  being  tested  in  California.  It 
is  not  to  be  expected  that  the  industry  can  settle  down  to 
the  cultivation  of  a  few  standard  sorts  until  all  of  the 
promising  ones  have  been  tested,  and  this  may  require  several 
years. 

In  Florida,  the  only  variety  which  was  extensively  planted 
during  the  first  fifteen  years  of  the  industry  was  Trapp.  With 
the  introduction  of  the  Guatemalans,  however,  the  question 
has  become  more  complicated,  and  it  will  take  some  time  to 
determine  by  actual  trial  which  members  of  this  race  are  most 
suitable  for  cultivation  in  different  parts  of  the  state. 

It  is  probable  that  varieties  will  be  obtained  which  will 
make  it  possible,  both  in  California  and  Florida,  to  market 
avocados  in  every  month  of  the  year.  Indeed,  it  is  almost 
possible  to  do  so  at  the  present  time.  In  other  regions  horti- 
culturists should  work  toward  this  end  by  obtaining  for  trial 
varieties  ripening  at  different  seasons. 


THE  AVOCADO  69 


West  Indian  race. 


This  race  is  the  predominant  one  in  the  West  Indies  and 
throughout  the  low-lying  portions  of  the  tropical  American 
mainland.  It  is  found  as  far  north  as  Florida  and  the  Bahama 
Islands,  and  as  far  south  as  central  Brazil.  From  its  home  in 
America  it  has  been  carried  to  Madeira,  the  Canary  Islands,  parts 
of  tropical  Africa,  Oceania,  and  the  Indo-Malayan  Archipelago. 
It  is  much  more  widely  disseminated  than  either  of  the  other  races. 
The  name  South  American  race  is  sometimes  applied  to  it,  while 
P.  H.  Rolfs  *  termed  it  the  West  Indian-South  American. 

Practically  all  of  the  avocados  cultivated  in  Florida  previous 
to  the  introduction  of  the  Guatemalan  were  of  this  race.  In 
California  it  has  never  been  extensively  grown;  only  a  few 
trees,  in  fact,  are  known  to  have  fruited  in  that  state.  It  is 
the  most  susceptible  to  frost  of  the  three  races,  and  is  best 
suited  to  cultivation  at  low  elevations  in  the  tropics. 

The  foliage  of  the  W'est  Indian  race  lacks  the  anise-like  scent 
which  characterizes  the  Mexican ;  in  general,  it  resembles  the 
foliage  of  the  Guatemalan  closely,  but  often  the  young  branch- 
lets  and  the  leaves  are  lighter  in  color.  The  fruits  are  pro- 
duced on  short  stems ;  the  smallest  weigh  4  or  5  ounces,  the 
largest  3  pounds  or  more.  The  surface  is  nearly  always 
smooth,  yellow-green  to  maroon  in  color,  the  skin  rarely  more 
than  iV  inch  thick,  pliable  and  leathery  in  texture.  The  seed 
is  usually  large  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  fruit,  and  often 
loose  in  the  seed  cavity.  The  cotyledons  are  often  rough  on 
the  surface,  with  the  two  seed-coats  frequently  thick  and 
separated,  at  least  over  the  pointed  end  of  the  seed,  one  of  the 
coats  sometimes  adhering  to  the  cotyledons  and  the  other  to 
the  wall  of  the  seed  cavity.  The  flowers  are  characterized  by 
less  pubescence  than  those  of  the  Mexican  race,  but  are  very 
similar  to  those  of  the  Guatemalan  ;  sometimes  they  are  almost 

1  Bull.  61,  U.  S.  Dcpt.  Agr. 


70       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 


devoid  of  pubescence.  The  flowering  season  is  from  February 
to  March  in  Florida,  the  fruit  maturing  from  July  to  November, 
in  certain  varieties  sometimes  remaining  on  the  tree  until 
December  or  January. 

Pollock  (Fig.  4).  —  Form  obovate  to  oblong-pyrif  orm ;    size  very 

large  to  extremely  large,  weight  commonly  25  to  35  ounces,  but  occa- 
sionally attaining  to  50  ounces,  length  6|  to  7i 
inches,  greatest  breadth  4  to  5  inches ;  base  nar- 
row, flattened  slightly,  with  the  short  stem  inserted 
obliquely  in  a  shallow,  flaring,  regular  cavity ;  apex 
obliquely  flattened  or  slightly  depressed ;  surface 
smooth,  light  yellowish  green  in  color,  with  numer- 
ous small  greenish  yellow  or  russet  dots  ;  skin  less 
than  T^  inch  thick,  separating  very  readily  from  the 
flesh,  tough  and  leathery ;  flesh  firm,  smooth  and 
fine  in  texture,  deep  yellow  changing  to  yellowish 
green  close  to  the  skin,  almost  without  a  trace  of 
fiber  discoloration;  flavor  rich,  rather  dry,  very 
pleasant ;  quality  excellent ;  seed  conic,  oblique  at 
base,  rather  small,  weighing  about  4  ounces,  usually 
fitting  snugly  in  the  cavity  but  sometimes  loose, 
the  seed-coats  rather  loose,  more  or  less  separate  ; 
season  August  and  September  at  Miami,  Florida. 
Originated  at  Miami,  Florida;  first  propagated  in  1901.  It  has 

been  planted  more  extensively  than  any  other  West  Indian  variety 

except  Trapp.     It  is  remarkable  for 

its  large  size  and  excellent  quality. 
Trapp  (Fig.  5).  —  Form  roundish 

oblate,    obliquely    flattened   at   the 

apex ;   size  large  to  very  large,  weight 

16  to  24  ounces,  length  4  to  4£  inches, 

greatest  breadth  4|  to  4|  inches ;  base 

narrowing  slightly,  flattened  around 

the  deep,  narrow,  rounded,   regular 

cavity  in  which  the  short  stem  is  in- 
serted ;  apex  obliquely  flattened ;  sur- 
face smooth  to  undulating  or  slightly 

pitted,    pale   yellow-green   in   color, 

with    numerous    small    to    medium 

sized,  irregular,  pale  greenish  yellow 


FIG.  4.    The  Pollock 
avocado.     (X  T3?) 


FIG.  5.     The  Trapp  avocado.   (  Xf ) 


dots  ;  skin  TV  inch  thick,  separating  very  readily  from  the  flesh,  firm, 
leathery  and  pliable  ;  flesh  firm,  very  smooth,  rich  cream-yellow,  chang- 
ing to  pale  green  near  the  skin,  fiber  discoloration  very  slight ;  flavor 


THE   AVOCADO  71 

moderately  rich,  pleasant,  quality  good;  seed  broadly  oblate,  large, 
about  5  ounces  in  weight,  nearly  tight  in  the  cavity,  with  the  seed-coats 
adhering  more  or  less  closely  to  the  cotyledons  or  sometimes  to  the 
lining  of  the  cavity.  Season  commencing  in  late  September  or  October 
at  Miami,  Florida,  and  extending  until  the  end  of  December,  with  a 
few  fruits  hanging  on  until  the  end  of  February  or  March. 

Originated  at  Coconut  Grove,  Florida;  first  propagated  in  1901. 
An  unusually  late  variety,  and  for  this  reason  valuable.  It  was  the 
only  avocado  planted  extensively  in  Florida  previous  to  the  introduction 
of  the  Guatemalans.  The  tree  is  very  productive,  but  is  a  weak  grower 
and  susceptible  to  frost. 

Waldin.  —  Form  oblong  to  oblong-pyrif  orm ;  size  large  to  very 
large,  weight  18  to  28  ounces,  length  5  to  6£  inches,  greatest  breadth 
3|  to  4|  inches ;  base  somewhat  narrowed  with  the  rather  short  thick 
stem  inserted  squarely;  apex  slightly  flattened;  surface  smooth, 
usually  without  markings;  skin  fa  inch  thick,  separating  readily 
from  the  flesh,  tough  and  leathery  in  texture ;  flesh  firm,  deep  yellow 
in  color,  smooth,  with  very  little  trace  of  fiber  ;  flavor  rich  and  pleas- 
ant;  quality  excellent;  seed  obovate,  rather  large,  weighing  about 
5  ounces,  usually  tight  in  the  cavity.  Season  October  until  early 
January  at  Homestead,  Florida. 

Originated  near  Homestead,  Florida;  first  propagated  in  1915. 
The  tree  is  a  strong  grower,  productive,  and  more  resistant  to  cold 
and  to  fungous  diseases  than  the  average  variety  of  its  race.  Valu- 
able on  account  of  its  lateness  in  ripening,  and  the  good  quality  of  its 
fruits. 


Guatemalan  race. 

Although  planted  in  California  as  early  as  1885,  the  Guate- 
malan race  did  not  begin  to  attract  attention  until  about  1910. 
With  the  increase  of  interest  in  avocado  culture  which  had 
its  inception  in  California  about  that  time,  a  number  of 
fruiting  trees  were  brought  to  light,  most  of  them  grown 
from  seed  introduced  about  1900  by  John  Murrieta  of  Los 
Angeles,  although  the  first  tree  was  planted  by  Jacob  Miller 
at  Hollywood.  Because  of  the  excellent  commercial  qualities 
of  the  fruits  produced  by  these  seedlings  and  the  season  at  which 
they  ripened,  several  of  them  were  propagated  and  named  as 
horticultural  varieties.  The  number  has  now  increased,  both 
through  the  fruiting  of  seedlings  locally  and  the  introduction  of 


72       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

selected  varieties  from  southern  Mexico  and  Guatemala, 
especially  from  the  vicinity  of  Atlixco,  Puebla,  Mexico,  which 
was  the  source  of  most  of  the  seeds  introduced  by  Murrieta 
and  has  since  furnished  bud  wood  of  many  choice  varieties. 

In  Florida  this  race  came  into  notice  even  later  than  in 
California.  Several  trees  grown  from  seeds  sent  from  Guate- 
mala by  G.  N.  Collins  about  1901  came  into  bearing  at  the 
Miami  Plant  Introduction  Garden  in  1911-1912,  and  their 
season  of  ripening,  February  to  April,  immediately  stimulated 
interest  in  this  race,  since  a  winter-ripening  avocado  had  been 
the  greatest  desideratum  of  Florida  growers.  Budwood  of 
practically  all  the  varieties  growing  in  California  was  obtained, 
and  the  first  offspring  of  these  came  into  bearing  at  Miami  in 
1915.  While  it  can  thus  be  seen  that  the  Guatemalan  race  is 
new  to  Florida,  it  promises  to  become  of  great  commercial 
value,  and  it  has  the  decided  advantage  that  its  culture  will  be 
possible  farther  north  than  that  of  the  West  Indian  race. 
Up  to  the  present  the  trees  are  successful  under  Florida  condi- 
tions. The  varieties  that  have  so  far  fruited  ripen  from  October 
to  May. 

In  other  countries  the  distribution  of  this  race  is  limited. 
It  was  introduced  into  Hawaii  in  1885,  and  has  recently  begun 
to  attract  attention  in  that  territory.  Lately  it  has  been 
planted  in  Cuba,  where  it  promises  to  be  successful.  It  has 
also  been  introduced  into  Porto  Rico  and  a  few  other  regions, 
but  only  within  the  last  few  years. 

The  foliage  of  the  Guatemalan  race,  as  of  the  West  Indian, 
lacks  the  anise-like  odor  which  characterizes  the  Mexican.  It 
is  commonly  deeper  colored  than  the  West  Indian,  the  new 
growth  often  being  deep  bronze-red.  The  fruits,  weighing  4 
ounces  to  more  than  3  pounds  (commonly  12  to  20  ounces), 
and  borne  on  long  stems,  are  light  green  to  purplish  black  in 
color.  The  surface  is  often  rough  or  warty,  especially  toward 
the  stem  end  of  the  fruit.  The  skin  is  usually  over  ^  inch, 


THE   AVOCADO  73 

sometimes  i  inch,  thick.  This  characteristic,  together  with 
the  texture  of  the  surface,  is  variable,  occasional  forms  being 
found  which  have  the  skin  scarcely  thicker  or  rougher  than  in 
the  West  Indian  race.  It  is  usually  harder,  however,  and  more 
coarsely  granular  in  character.  The  seed  completely  fills  the 
cavity.  The  cotyledons  are  nearly  or  quite  smooth,  the  seed- 
coats  thin,  closely  united,  and  adherent  to  the  cotyledons 
throughout.  The  flowers,  more  finely  pubescent  than  in  the 
Mexican  race,  are  similar  in  character  to  those  of  the  West 
Indian.  They  appear  much  later  than  those  of  the  Mexican 
race,  usually  beginning  to  open  in  late  spring,  about  the  time 
those  of  the  Wrest  Indian  race  (in  Florida)  are  setting  fruits. 
Unlike  both  the  other  races,  the  fruit  does  not  ripen  in  the  en- 
suing summer,  but  is  carried  over  into  the  following  autumn, 
winter,  or  spring;  while  in  California,  fruits  which  develop 
from  flowers  appearing  in  June  may  remain  on  the  tree  until  a 
year  from  the  following  October.  The  ripening  season  in  general 
is  winter  and  spring  in  Florida,  somewhat  later  in  California, 
where  the  earliest  varieties  at  present  cultivated  begin  to  ripen 
late  in  January  or  in  February,  and  the  latest  ones  hang  on  the 
tree  until  October. 

Blakeman.  —  Form  broad  pyriform  to  obconic,  oblique,  broad  at 
the  basal  end ;  size  above  medium  to  very  large,  weight  14  to  20 
ounces,  length  4  to  4f  inches,  greatest  breadth  3£  to  3|  inches ;  base 
rounded,  the  long  stem  inserted  obliquely  in  a  very  shallow  cavity; 
apex  broadly  rounded,  obliquely  flattened  or  slightly  depressed  on  one 
side,  with  the  stigmatic  point  raised;  surface  slightly  undulating 
to  roughened,  but  not  so  rough  as  in  many  other  Guatemalan  varieties, 
dark  green  with  numerous  large  yellowish  or  reddish  brown  dots ;  skin 
thick  and  woody,  separating  readily  from  the  flesh,  brittle,  granular ; 
flesh  fine-grained,  firm,  deep  cream-yellow  in  color,  tinged  with  green 
near  the  skin,  free  from  fiber  or  discoloration ;  flavor  rich,  pleasant ; 
quality  very  good ;  seed  broadly  conic,  medium  sized,  fitting  tightly 
in  the  cavity  with  both  seed-coats  adhering  closely.  Season  April  to 
August  at  Hollywood,  California. 

Originated  at  Hollywood,  California;  first  propagated  in  1912, 
under  the  provisional  names  Habersham  and  Dickey  No.  2. 


74       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 


Dickinson  (Fig.  6).  —  Form  oval  to  obovate,  sometimes  almost 
pyriform;  size  small  to  medium,  weight  9  to  14  ounces,  length  3| 
inches,  greatest  breadth  2f  inches ;  base  not  noticeably  flattened,  the 
long  stem  inserted  in  a  very  small  and  shallow  cavity ;  apex  rounded ; 
surface  very  rough,  verrucose  or  tuberculate  around  the  base,  dark 
purple  in  color  with  large,  irregular,  maroon  dots ;  skin  very  thick, 
especially  near  the  base,  separating  fairly  readily  from  the  flesh, 
coarsely  granular,  woody,  brittle ;  flesh  buttery,  pale  greenish  yellow, 
free  from  fiber,  of  pleasant  flavor ;  quality  good  ;  seed  roundish  oblate, 
medium  sized,  tight  in  the  cavity,  with  both  seed-coats  adhering  closely. 
Season  June  to  October  at  Los  Angeles,  California. 

Originated  at  Los  Angeles,  California;  first  propagated  in  1912. 
Vigorous  in  growth  and  precocious  in  fruiting. 

Lyon.  —  Form  broad  pyriform,  indistinctly  necked,  and  some- 
times oblique  at  the  apex ;  size  above  medium 
to  large,  weight  14  to  18  ounces,  length  about 
5£  inches,  greatest  breadth  3|  inches  ;  base  nar- 
row, the  long  stout  stem  inserted  obliquely  al- 
most without  depression ;  surface  undulating 
to  rough,  bright  green  in  color,  with  numerous 
small  yellowish  or  russet  dots;  skin  moder- 
ately thick,  separating  very  readily  from  the 
flesh,  coarsely  granular,  brittle ;  flesh  smooth, 
firm,  deep  cream  colored,  tinged  with  green 
toward  the  skin,  free  from  fiber  discoloration, 
the  flavor  very  rich  and  pleasant ;  quality  very 
good ;  seed  broad  conic,  medium  small  to  me- 
dium in  size,  fitting  tightly  in  the  cavity  with 
both  seed-coats  adhering  closely.  Season  April 
to  August  at  Hollywood,  California. 
Originated  at  Hollywood,  California;  first  propagated  in  1911. 
The  tree  is  precocious  in  bearing,  and  the  fruit  is  of  excellent 
quality. 

Sharpless.  —  Form  slender  pyriform  to  elongated  pyriform  with  a 
long  neck ;  size  large  to  very  large,  weight  16  to  24  ounces,  length 
6  to  6|  inches,  greatest  breadth  3£  inches;  base  very  narrow,  the 
long  stem  inserted  obliquely  without  depression;  apex  rounded; 
surface  slightly  roughened  or  pitted,  glossy,  greenish  purple  to  deep 
purple  in  color,  with  numerous  yellowish  dots ;  skin  thick,  separat- 
ing readily  from  the  flesh,  granular  and  woody ;  flesh  smooth,  firm, 
cream  colored,  free  from  fiber  discoloration,  and  of  unusually  rich 
pleasant  flavor ;  quality  excellent ;  seed  oblate-oblique,  small,  weigh- 
ing 1£  ounces,  fitting  tightly  in  the  cavity,  with  both  seed-coats 
adhering  closely.  Season  October  to  February  at  Santa  Ana,  Cali- 
fornia. 


FIG.  6.     The  Dickinson 
avocado.     (X  f) 


THE  AVOCADO  75 

Originated  near  Santa  Ana,  California;  first  propagated  in  1913. 
This  is  a  fruit  of  fine  quality,  ripening  very  late  in  season. 

Solano.  —  Form  broadly  obovate  to  oval ;  size  above  medium  to 
large,  weight  16  to  24  ounces,  sometimes  attaining  to  28  ounces, 
length  5|  inches,  greatest  breadth  3J  inches ;  base  rounded,  with  the 
long  stem  inserted  obliquely  without  depression ;  apex  oblique,  slightly 
flattened;  surface  nearly  smooth,  somewhat  glossy,  bright  green  in 
color  with  numerous  greenish  yellow  dots;  skin  moderately  thick, 
separating  readily  from  the  flesh,  granular ;  flesh  firm,  smooth,  yellow- 
ish cream  color,  greenish  near  the  skin,  free  from  fiber  discolorations 
and  of  mild  pleasant  flavor;  quality  fair;  seed  broadly  conical  to 
broadly  ovate,  small,  fitting  tightly  in  the  cavity,  with  both  seed-coats 
adhering  closely.  Season  March  to  May  at  Los  Angeles,  California ; 
October  to  November  15  at  Miami,  Florida. 

Originated  at  Hollywood,  California;  first 
propagated  in  1912.  Productive,  and  a  strong 
grower. 

S pinks.  —  Form  broadly  obovate,  or  ob- 
conic ;  size  extremely  large,  weighing  from  18 
to  34  ounces,  length  about  5  inches,  greatest 
breadth  about  4£  inches ;  base  narrow,  rounded, 
with  the  rather  short  stout  stem  inserted  almost 
squarely  without  depression;  apex  rounded; 
surface  roughened,  warty  around  the  base,  dark 
purple  in  color ;  skin  thick,  separating  readily 
from  the  flesh,  woody,  granular,  brittle ;  flesh 
firm,  smooth,  rich  yellow  in  color,  free  from 
fiber,  and  of  rich  pleasant  flavor  ;  quality  very  FIG.  7.  The  Taft  avo- 
good  ;  seed  nearly  spherical,  small,  weighing  3  cado.  (X  $) 

ounces,  fitting  tightly  in  the  cavity  with  the  seed- 
coats  adhering  closely.     Season  April  to  August  at  Duarte,  California. 

Originated  at  Duarte,  California;  first  propagated  in  1915.  The 
tree  is  vigorous  and  productive,  and  the  fruit  of  excellent  quality. 

Taft  (Fig.  7).  —  Form  broad  pyriform,  slightly  necked;  size  above 
medium  to  very  large,  weight  14  to  24  ounces,  length  5  to  5|  inches, 
greatest  breadth  3f  inches;  base  tapering,  the  long  stem  inserted 
obliquely  without  depression ;  apex  rounded,  with  the  stigmatic  point 
raised ;  surface  undulating  to  roughened  around  the  base,  deep  green  in 
color,  with,  numerous  yellowish  dots;  skin  thick,  separating  very 
readily  from  the  flesh,  granular,  rather  pliable;  flesh  firm,  smooth, 
light  yellow  in  color  with  no  trace  of  fiber  discoloration;  flavor  un- 
usually rich  and  pleasant;  quality  excellent;  seed  broadly  conical, 
medium  sized,  fitting  tightly  in  the  cavity  with  both  seed-coats  adhering 
closely.  Season  May  to  October  in  southern  California. 

Originated  at  Orange,  California;    first  propagated  in  1912.     The 


76       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

tree  is  a  strong  grower  but  has  not  proved  very  frost-resistant  in  Florida. 
Its  bearing  habits  have  not  been  satisfactory  in  California,  but  in 
Florida  they  promise  to  be  better. 

Taylor.  —  Form  pyriform  to  obovate  ;  size  medium  to  large,  weight 
12  to  18  ounces,  length  4  to  4|  inches,  greatest  breadth  3^  inches ; 
base  tapering,  usually  not  distinctly  necked,  the  long  stem  inserted 
obliquely  almost  without  depression ;  apex  rounded  ;  surface  undulat- 
ing to  rough,  dull  green  in  color,  with  numerous  small  yellowish  dots ; 
skin  T^  inch  thick,  separating  readily  from  the  flesh,  granular  and 
woody ;  flesh  firm,  smooth,  yellowish  cream  color,  pale  green  near  the 
skin,  free  from  fiber,  and  of  fairly  rich  pleasant  flavor ;  quality  very 
good ;  seed  conical,  medium  sized,  tight  in  the  cavity  with  both  seed^ 
coats  adhering  closely.  Season  January  15  to  April  1 ,  at  Miami,  Florida. 

Originated  at  Miami,  Florida;  first  propagated  in  1914.  This 
variety  has  been  planted  only  in  Florida,  where  it  has  proved  to  be 
vigorous  and  reasonably  productive. 


Mexican  race. 

This  race,  which  embraces  the  hardiest  avocados  cultivated 
in  the  United  States,  is  particularly  valuable  for  regions  too 
cold  for  the  West  Indian  and  Guatemalan  varieties.  It  is 
extensively  cultivated  in  the  highlands  of  central  and  northern 
Mexico,  whence  seeds  have  been  brought  to  California,  re- 
sulting in  numerous  seedling  trees  scattered  throughout  the 
southern  half  of  the  state.  In  Florida  it  has  never  become 
popular,  but  good  varieties  have  not  been  introduced  until 
recently.  Some  of  them  promise  to  prove  of  value  for  the 
colder  sections  of  that  state. 

From  its  native  home  in  Mexico  this  race  has  spread  to 
several  other  regions,  most  notably  Chile,  where  it  appears  to 
be  well  known.  It  is  the  only  race  grown  successfully  in 
the  Mediterranean  region,  trees  having  fruited  at  Algiers,  in 
southern  Spain,  along  the  Riviera  in  southern  France,  and  even 
in  such  a  cold  location  as  that  of  Rome.  In  tropical  regions 
outside  of  Mexico  it  seems  to  be  little  cultivated. 

The  anise-like  scent  of  the  foliage  and  immature  fruits  is  the 
most  distinctive  characteristic  of  the  race  and  the  one  by  which 


THE  AVOCADO 


77 


it  is  usually  identified.  The  leaves  are  commonly  smaller 
than  those  of  the  Guatemalan  and  West  Indian  races,  and 
sharper  at  the  apex.  The  fruit  is  small,  3  to  12  ounces  in 
weight,  rarely  15  or  16  ounces.  The  skin  is  thin,  often  no 
thicker  than  that  of  an*  apple,  and  usually  smooth  and  glossy 
on  the  surface.  The  color  varies  from  green  to  deep  purple. 
The  seed  is  commonly  larger  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  fruit 
than  in  the  Guatemalan  race.  The  seed-coats  are  both  thin, 
sometimes  closely  united  and  adhering  to  the  cotyledons,  some- 
times separating  as  in  the  West  Indian  race.  The  flowers 
are  heavily  pubescent,  and  appear  in  winter  or  early  spring, 
sometimes  as  early  as  November  and  usually 
not  later  than  March.  The  fruit  ripens  in 
summer  and  autumn,  commencing  in  June 
in  Florida  and  August  in  California.  Some- 
times a  second  crop  is  produced  from  late 
flowers,  ripening  from  March  to  May  in 
California. 


Northrop  (Fig.  8).  —  Form  obovate  to  pyri- 
form,  sometimes  distinctly  necked;  size  small, 
weight  5  to  8  ounces,  length  4  inches,  greatest 
breadth  2£  inches ;  base  narrow,  the  slender  stem 
inserted  squarely  almost  without  depression; 
apex  rounded ;  surface  smooth,  very  glossy,  deep 
purple  in  color,  with  a  few  small  maroon  dots ;  skin  thin,  adhering 
closely  to  the  flesh,  membranous ;  flesh  buttery,  cream  yellow  in  color, 
practically  free  from  fiber,  and  of  rich  flavor ;  quality  good ;  seed 
oblong-conic,  small,  fitting  tightly  in  the  cavity  with  the  seed-coats 
both  adhering  closely.  Season  October  and  November  at  Santa  Ana, 
California,  with  a  second  crop  maturing  in  April  and  May. 

Originated  near  Santa  Ana,  California;  first  propagated  in  1911 
under  the  name  Eells.  The  tree  is  vigorous,  frost-resistant,  and 
productive. 

Puebla  (Fig.  9).  —  Form  obovoid,  slightly  oblique;  size  below 
medium  to  medium,  weight  8  to  10  ounces,  length  34  inches,  greatest 
breadth  21  inches ;  base  obliquely  flattened,  the  stem  inserted  slightly 
to  one  side  in  a  small  shallow  cavity ;  apex  obliquely  flattened  but  not 
prominently  so  ;  surface  smooth,  glossy,  deep  maroon-purple,  in  color, 


FIG.  8.     The  North- 
rop avocado.     (X  7) 


78       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 


with  numerous  reddish  dots ;  skin  less  than  -fa  inch  thick,  easily  peeled 
from  the  flesh,  firm  in  texture ;  flesh  rich  cream  yellow  near  the  seed, 
changing  to  pale  green  near  the  skin,  buttery  in  texture,  and  of  rich 
nutty  flavor ;  quality  very  good ;  seed  medium  to  large,  tight  in  the 
cavity,  with  both  seed-coats  adhering  closely  to  the  cotyledons. 
Season  December  to  February  in  southern  California. 

Originated  at  Atlixco,  state  of  Puebla,  Mex- 
ico; first  propagated  in  1911,  in  which  year  it 
was  introduced  into  California.  A  vigorous  and 
hardy  variety,  fruiting  later  in  the  season  than 
most  others  of  its  race. 


FIG.  9.     The  Puebla 
avocado.     (X  f ) 


Hybrids. 

This  group  has  been  established  to  in- 
clude hybrids  between  Persea  drymifolia 
(the  Mexican  race  of  horticulture)  and  P. 
americana  (the  Guatemalan  and  West 
Indian  races).  Fuerte  is  the  only  variety 
which  at  present  falls  within  it,  and  even 
this  is  not  definitely  known  to  be  a  hybrid.  It  bears,  however, 
many  evidences  of  hybridity,  and  cannot  rightly  be  classified 
either  with  the  Mexican  or  the  Guatemalan  races. 

Fuerte.  —  Form  pyrif orm  (not  necked)  to  oblong ;  size  below 
medium  to  above  medium,  weight  10  to  16  ounces,  length  4  to  4? 
inches,  greatest  breadth  2i  to  2|  inches;  base  pointed;  the  stem 
inserted  obliquely  in  a  small  shallow  cavity ;  apex  obliquely  flattened, 
depressed  around  the  stigmatic  point;  surface  pebbled,  sometimes 
slightly  wrinkled  around  the  stem,  dull  green,  with  numerous  small 
yellow  dots  ;  skin  about  ^  inch  thick,  separating  readily  from  the  flesh, 
pliable  and  leathery  in  texture;  flesh  rich  cream  yellow  in  color, 
greenish  near  the  skin,  of  smooth  buttery  texture,  and  very  rich  flavor ; 
quality  excellent;  seed  small,  tight  in  cavity,  seed-coats  closely  sur- 
rounding cotyledons.  Season  January  to  August  in  southern  California. 

Originated  at  Atlixco,  state  of  Puebla,  Mexico;  first  propagated 
in  1911,  in  which  year  it  was  introduced  into  California.  An  unusual 
variety,  apparently  a  hybrid  between  the  Guatemalan  race  of  Persea 
americana  and  the  Mexican  race  (P.  drymifolia).  It  is  characterized 
by  great  vigor  of  growth,  hardiness,  good  productiveness,  and  a  long 
season  of  ripening  differing  from  that  of  nearly  all  Guatemalan  and 
Mexican  varieties.  The  fruit  contains  as  much  as  30  per  cent  of  fat, 
and  is  of  very  pleasant  flavor. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  MANGO 

Plates  V-V1 

AKBAR,  the  Mughal  emperor  who  reigned  in  northern  India 
from  1556  to  1605,  planted  near  Darbhanga  the  Lakh  Bagh,  an 
orchard  of  a  hundred  thousand  mango  trees.  Nothing,  perhaps, 
more  eloquently  attests  the  importance  of  this  fruit  and  the 
esteem  in  which  it  has  long  been  held  than  this  immense 
planting,  made  at  a  time  when  large  orchards  of  fruit-trees 
were  almost  unknown.  Three  hundred  years  after  they  were 
set  out,  the  English  horticulturist  Charles  Maries  found  some  of 
these  trees  still  in  vigorous  condition. 

Few  other  fruits  have  the  historic  background  of  the  mango, 
and  few  others  are  so  inextricably  connected  with  the  folk-lore 
and  religious  ceremonies  of  a  great  people.  Buddha  himself 
was  presented  with  a  mango  grove,  that  he  might  find  repose 
beneath  its  grateful  shade.  The  Turkoman  poet  Amir  Khusrau, 
whose  grass-covered  tomb  is  still  venerated  at  Delhi,  wrote 
to  this  effect  in  Persian  verse  during  the  reign  of  Muhammad 
Tughlak  Shah  (1325-1351) : 

The  mango  is  the  pride  of  the  Garden, 
The  choicest  fruit  of  Hindustan. 
Other  fruits  we  are  content  to  eat  when  ripe, 
But  the  mango  is  good  in  all  stages  of  growth. 

In  more  recent  times,  British  authors  have  not  hesitated 
to  lavish  praise  on  this  oriental  King  of  Fruits.  Fryer,  in  1673, 
wrote  regarding  mangos  that  "The  Apples  of  the  Hesperides  are 

79 


80       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

but  Fables  to  them;  for  Taste,  the  Nectarine,  Peach,  and 
Apricot  fall  short."  Hamilton,  who  wrote  in  1727,  went  even 
farther  than  this;  he  declares  "The  Goa  mango  is  reckoned 
the  largest  and  most  delicious  to  the  taste  of  any  in  the  world, 
and  I  may  add,  the  wholesomest  and  best  tasted  of  any  Fruit 
in  the  World/' 

These  few  quotations  will  suffice  to  show  the  long  established 
prestige  of  the  mango  in  its  native  home.  After  the  develop- 
ment of  trade  between  India  and  the  outside  world,  its  culti- 
vation spread  to  other  countries.  At  the  present  time  the 
mango  is  a  fruit  of  greater  importance  to  millions  throughout 
the  tropics  than  is  the  apple  to  temperate  North  America. 

In  the  past  twenty  years  choice  budded  or  grafted  varieties 
have  been  planted  in  Florida  and  the  West  Indies,  and  the 
fruit  has  begun  to  appear  in  the  markets  of  the  North.  The 
rich  spicy  flavor  of  the  mango,  its  peculiarly  tempting  fragrance, 
and  the  beautiful  shades  of  color  which  characterize  many 
varieties,  make  it  one  of  the  most  attractive  dessert  fruits  on 
the  American  market. 

In  many  instances  travelers  have  made  the  acquaintance 
of  this  fruit  through  some  of  the  fibrous  seedlings  which  abound 
in  all  parts  of  the  tropical  world,  and  as  a  result  may  have 
formed  an  aversion  for  it  difficult  to  overcome.  It  is  only  in 
the  superb  grafted  varieties  of  the  Orient,  the  product  of  cen- 
turies of  improvement,  that  the  mango  exhibits  its  best  qualities. 
There  is  more  difference  between  an  ordinary  seedling  and  a 
grafted  Alphonse  than  there  is  between  a  crab-apple  and  a 
Gravenstein. 

Since  the  introduction  of  these  choice  varieties  into  tropical 
and  subtropical  America,  mango  culture  has  there  taken  on  a 
new  aspect.  Previously  limited  to  the  production  of  seedling 
fruits  usually  of  inferior  quality  though  valuable  for  local 
consumption,  the  industry  is  now  being  developed  with  a  view 
to  supplying  northern  markets  with  fancy  fruit. 


THE   MANGO  81 

While  many  of  the  common  seedlings  yield  abundantly  with 
no  cultural  attention,  the  production  of  fine  grafted  mangos  is 
attended  by  certain  cultural  difficulties,  some  of  which  are  yet 
to  be  overcome.  Anthracnose,  a  fungous  disease  related  to  the 
wither-tip  of  citrus  fruits,  is  a  serious  pest  in  many  regions. 
The  greatest  difficulty,  however,  is  the  tendency  of  many  of  the 
choice  Indian  varieties  to  bear  irregularly.  In  some  cases  good 
crops  are  produced  not  oftener  than  once  in  three  or  four  years. 
Thorough  investigation  of  cultural  requirements  together  with 
experimental  planting  of  many  varieties  is  bringing  to  light 
the  most  productive  kinds  and  the  proper  methods  to  be 
employed  in  their  cultivation. 

BOTANICAL  DESCRIPTION 

The  family  Anacardiaceae,  to  which  the  mango  belongs, 
includes  a  large  number  of  plants  found  within  the  tropics 
and  a  few  growing  in  the  Mediterranean  region,  Japan, 
and  temperate  North  America.  The  best  known  relatives 
of  the  mango  are,  probably,  the  cashew  (Anacardium  occi- 
dentale),  widely  cultivated  in  the  tropics  for  its  edible 
fruit;  the  pistachio  nut  (Pistacia  vera)  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean region;  several  species  of  Spondias  which  are  grown 
for  their  edible  fruits;  the  obnoxious  poison  ivy  (Rhus  Toxi- 
codendron)  of  the  United  States;  and  the  so-called  pepper- 
tree,  Schinus  molle,  familiar  in  the  gardens  and  streets  of 
southern  California. 

The  cultivated  mangos  are  usually  considered  as  belonging 
to  a  single  species,  Mangifera  indica.  It  has  been  pointed 
out  by  certain  botanists,  however,  that  probably  other  species 
have  entered  into  the  composition  of  cultivated  forms.  C.  L. 
Blume l  says  that  they  have  developed  from  many  species 
scattered  through  tropical  Asia,  mainly  in  the  Malay  Archi- 

» Mus.  Lugd.  Bat.  1,  190-191. 


82       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

pelago.  It  is  probable  that  some  of  the  groups  or  races  recog- 
nized as  horticulturally  distinct  represent  other  species  than 
M.  indica,  or  hybrids.  A  species  which  has  been  regarded 
particularly  as  one  of  the  ancestors  of  cultivated  forms  is  M. 
laurina. 

About  forty  species  of  the  genus  Mangifera  are  recognized 
by  botanists,  most  of  them  coming  from  the  Malayan  region. 
Several  are  cultivated  for  their  fruits,  although  on  a  limited 
scale.  Some  of  them  are  perhaps  not  distinct  from  M .  indica, 
as  at  present  recognized.  The  following  species  merit  con- 
sideration in  connection  with  mango  culture  (the  notes  are 
based  mainly  on  Hooker's  Flora  of  British  India  and  Blume's 
Museum  Botanicum  Lugduno-Batavum) : 

Mangifera  altissima,  Blanco.  PAHUTAN.  Indigenous  to  the  Philip- 
pine Islands.  Fruit  large,  closely  resembling  that  of  the  mango,  edible. 

M.  ccesia,  Jack.  BINJAI.  Wild  and  cultivated  in  Malacca, 
Sumatra,  and  Java.  Fruit  oblong-obovate,  reddish  white  in  color, 
not  of  good  quality. 

M.  fcetida,  Lour.  BACHANG.  AMBATJANG.  Distributed  through- 
out the  Malay  Archipelago.  Fruit  variable  in  form,  not  compressed, 
green,  with  yellow  flesh  of  disagreeable  odor.  Not  esteemed,  although 
sometimes  eaten. 

M.  laurina,  Blume.  MANGA  MONJET,  MANGA  PARI,  etc.  Wild  and 
cultivated  in  the  Malay  Archipelago.  Fruit  elliptic-oblique,  the  size 
of  a  plum.  Blume  describes  numerous  varieties  grown  in  Java  and 
other  islands.  Certainly  very  close  to  M.  indica. 

M.  odorata,  Griff.  KUWINI.  BUMBUM.  Wild  in  Malacca,  cul- 
tivated in  Java.  Fruit  oblong,  yellowish  green,  the  flesh  yellow, 
sweet,  with  no  turpentine  flavor.  "Often  planted  by  the  natives,  who 
eat  the  fruit." 

M.  sylvatica,  Roxb.  Tropical  Nipal,  Sikkim  Himalaya,  and  the 
Khasia  mountains  of  India ;  Andaman  Islands.  The  foliage  is  like  that 
of  the  common  mango ;  the  fruit,  ovoid,  beaked,  differs  only  slightly 
from  that  of  M .  indica. 

M.  verticillata,  Rob.  BAUNO.  Wild  in  the  southern  Philippine 
Islands.  Fruit  "  very  juicy,  rich,  subacid,  quite  aromatic,  of  excellent 
flavor." 

M.  zeylanica,  Hook.  f.  Wild  in  Ceylon.  Closely  resembles  M. 
indica,  but  is  considered  by  Hooker  to  differ  in  habit  and  foliage,  and 
in  the  character  of  the  flowers.  Fruit  said  to  be  small,  edible. 


THE   MANGO  83 

The  mango  tree  is  evergreen.  Seedlings  on  deep  rich  soils 
often  reach  immense  size.  One  measured  in  Bahia,  Brazil, 
had  a  spread  of  125  feet  and  a  trunk  25  feet  in  circumference. 
Trees  believed  to  be  more  than  a  hundred  years  old  are  common 
in  the  Orient ;  not  a  few  such  are  to  be  seen  in  tropical  America, 
but  the  comparatively  recent  introduction  of  the  mango  into 
this  hemisphere  makes  old  trees  less  common  than  in  India. 
Budded  or  grafted  trees  do  not  grow  so  large  as  do  seedlings, 
and  are  probably  shorter  lived. 

The  crown  is  sometimes  broad  and  round-topped;  in  other 
instances  it  is  oval,  giving  the  tree  an  erect  or  even  slender 
form.  The  leaves  are  lanceolate,  commonly  to  12  inches  in 
length,  rigid,  deep  green,  almost  glossy,  borne  upon  slender 
petioles  1  to  4  inches  long.  Growth  is  not  continuous  through- 
out a  long  season,  but  takes  place  in  frequently  recurring  periods, 
each  of  which  is  followed  by  a  period  of  inactivity.  These 
periods  of  growth  (commonly  termed  "flushes"  by  horti- 
culturists) do  not  occur  at  fixed  intervals,  and  in  fact  the  whole 
tree  does  not  always  break  out  in  new  growth  at  the  same  time. 
It  is  a  common  occurrence  for  one  side  of  the  tree  to  be  in  active 
growth  while  the  other  side  is  dormant.  The  young  leaves  are 
usually  reddish  or  coppery,  and  often  hang  limply  from  the 
ends  of  the  branchlets.  After  the  growth  has  begun  to  mature, 
they  become  turgid  and  soon  lose  their  reddish  color. 

The  small  pinkish  white  flowers  are  borne  in  large  panicles 
at  the  ends  of  the  branchlets.  In  Florida  and  the  West  Indies 
the  flowering  season  extends  from  December  to  April.  Some- 
times the  trees  bloom  two  or  three  times  during  the  season. 
More  than  4000  flowers  have  been  counted  on  a  single  panicle, 
but  not  all  of  these  are  capable  of  developing  into  fruits,  since 
the  mango  is  "polygamous,"  that  is,  it  produces  two  kinds  of 
flowers:  perfect  ones  having  both  stamens  and  pistils,  and 
others  which  are  unisexual.  The  unisexual  flowers,  which 
are  staminate,  commonly  outnumber  the  perfect  ones ;  usually, 


84       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

however,  there  is  only  one  pollen-bearing  stamen  in  each  flower. 
The  perfect  blossoms  are  easily  distinguished  from  the  staminate 
by  the  presence  in  the  former  of  the  small  greenish  yellow  ovary 
surmounting  the  white  disk  in  the  center. 

The  fruit  varies  greatly  in  size  and  character.  The  smallest 
kinds  are  no  larger  than  good-sized  plums,  while  the  largest 
are  4  or  5  pounds  in  weight.  The  form  is  oval,  heart- 
shaped,  kidney-shaped,  round,  or  long  and  slender.  The  skin 
is  smooth,  thicker  than  that  of  a  peach,  commonly  yellow  on 
the  surface  but  varying  greatly  in  color.  Some  varieties  are 
delicately  colored,  deep  yellow  or  apricot  with  a  crimson  blush 
on  one  cheek;  others  are  an  unattractive  green  even  when 
ripe.  The  color  depends  to  a  certain  extent  on  the  climate  in 
which  the  fruit  is  grown.  The  aroma  is  often  spicy  and  alluring, 
indicative  of  the  flavor  of  the  fruit.  The  flesh  is  yellow  or 
orange  in  color,  juicy,  often  fibrous  in  seedlings  and  inferior 
budded  varieties,  but  in  the  best  sorts  entirely  free  from  fiber 
and  of  smooth  melting  texture.  The  seed  is  large  and  flattened, 
its  tough,  woody  husk  or  outer  covering  inclosing  a  white 
kernel.  The  flavor  of  the  mango  has  been  likened  to  a  com- 
bination of  apricot  and  pineapple,  yet  it  cannot  be  described 
accurately  by  any  such  comparison.  It  is  rich  and  luscious  in 
the  best  varieties,  sweet,  but  with  sufficient  acidity  and  spiciness 
to  prevent  its  cloying  the  palate. 

HISTORY  AND  DISTRIBUTION 

Alphonse  DeCandolle  considered  it  probable  that  the  mango 
could  be  included  among  the  fruits  which  have  been  cultivated 
by  man  for  4000  years.  Its  prominence  in  Hindu  mythology 
and  religious  observance  leaves  no  doubt  as  to  its  antiquity, 
while  its  economic  importance  in  ancient  times  is  suggested 
by  one  of  the  Sanskrit  names,  am,  which  has  an  alternative 
meaning  of  provisions  or  victuals. 


THE  MANGO  85 

Dymock,  Warden,  and  Hooper  (Pharmacographia  Indica) 
give  the  following  resume  of  its  position  in  the  intellectual  life 
of  the  Hindus : 

"  The  mango,  in  Sanskrit  Amra,  Chuta  and  Sahakara,  is  said  to  be  a 
transformation  of  Prajapati  (lord  of  creatures),  an  epithet  in  the 
Veda  originally  applied  to  Savitri,  Soma,  Tvashtri,  Hirangagarbha, 
Indra,  and  Agni,  but  afterwards  the  name  of  a  separate  god  presiding 
over  procreation.  (Manu.  xii,  121.)  In  more  recent  hymns  and 
Brahmanas  Prajapati  is  identified  with  the  universe. 

44  The  tree  provides  one  of  the  pancha-pallava  or  aggregate  of  five 
sprigs  used  in  Hindu  ceremonial,  and  its  flowers  are  used  in  Shiva 
worship  on  the  Shivaratri.  It  is  also  a  favorite  of  the  Indian  poets. 
The  flower  is  invoked  in  the  sixth  act  of  Sakuntala  as  one  of  the  five 
arrows  of  Kamadeva.  In  the  travels  of  the  Buddhist  pilgrims  Fah-hien 
and  Sung-yun  (translated  by  Beal)  a  mango  grove  (Amravana)  is 
mentioned  which  was  presented  by  Amradarika  to  Buddha  in  order 
that  he  might  use  it  as  a  place  of  repose.  This  Amradarika,  a  kind  of 
Buddhic  Magdalen,  was  the  daughter  of  the  mango  tree.  In  the  Indian 
story  of  Surya  Bai  (see  Cox,  Myth,  of  the  Arian  Nations)  the  daughter 
of  the  sun  is  represented  as  persecuted  by  a  sorceress,  to  escape  from 
whom  she  became  a  golden  Lotus.  The  king  fell  in  love  with  the  flower, 
which  was  then  burnt  by  the  sorceress.  From  its  ashes  grew  a  mango 
tree,  and  the  king  fell  in  love  first  with  its  flower,  and  then  with  its 
fruit ;  when  ripe  the  fruit  fell  to  the  ground,  and  from  it  emerged  the 
daughter  of  the  sun  (Surya  Bai),  who  was  recognized  by  the  prince  as  his 
long  lost  wife." 

When  introduced  into  regions  where  climatic  conditions  are 
favorable,  the  mango  rapidly  becomes  naturalized  and  takes 
on  the  appearance  of  a  wild  plant.  This  fact,  together  with  the 
long  period  of  time  during  which  it  has  been  cultivated  through- 
out India,  makes  it  difficult  to  determine  the  original  home  of  the 
species. 

Sir  Joseph  Hooker  (Flora  of  British  India)  considered  the 
mango  to  be  indigenous  in  the  tropical  Himalayan  region,  from 
Kumaon  to  the  Bhutan  hills  and  the  valleys  of  Behar,  the 
Khasia  mountains,  Burma,  Oudh,  and  the  Western  peninsula 
from  Kandeish  southwards.  He  adds,  "It  is  difficult  to  say 
whether  so  common  a  tree  is  wild  or  not  in  a  given  locality, 


86       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

but  there  seems  to  be  little  doubt  that  it  is  indigenous  in  the 
localities  enumerated."  Dietrich  Brandis  (Indian  Trees)  says 
it  is  indigenous  in  Burma,  the  Western  Ghats,  in  the  Khasia 
hills,  Sikkim,  and  in  the  ravines  of  the  Satpuras.  R.  S.  Hole, 
of  the  Imperial  Forest  Research  Institute  at  Dehra  Dun, 
considers  that  the  so-called  wild  mangos  which  are  found  in 
many  parts  of  India  are  mostly  forms  escaped  from  cultivation, 
as  shown  by  the  fact  that  they  are  always  near  streams  or 
foot-paths  in  the  jungle,  where  seeds  have  been  thrown  by 
passing  natives. 

Alphonse  DeCandolle  says :  "  It  is  impossible  to  doubt  that 
it  is  a  native  of  the  south  of  Asia  and  of  the  Malay  Archipelago, 
when  we  see  the  multitude  of  varieties  cultivated  in  those 
countries,  the  number  of  ancient  names,  in  particular  a  San- 
skrit name,  its  abundance  in  the  gardens  of  Bengal,  of  the  Dek- 
kan  peninsula,  and  of  Ceylon,  even  in  Rheede's  time.  .  .  . 
The  true  mango  is  indicated  by  modern  authors  as  wild  in  the 
forests  of  Ceylon,  the  regions  at  the  base  of  the  Himalayas, 
especially  towards  the  east,  in  Arracan,  tygu,  and  the  Andaman 
Isles.  Miquel  does  not  mention  it  as  wild  in  any  of  the  islands 
of  the  Malay  Archipelago.  In  spite  of  its  growing  in  Ceylon, 
and  the  indications,  less  positive  certainly,  of  Sir  Joseph  Hooker 
in  the  Flora  of  British  India,  the  species  is  probably  rare  or  only 
naturalized  in  the  Indian  peninsula." 

Most  species  of  Mangifera  are  natives  of  the  Malayan 
region.  Sumatra  in  particular  is  the  home  of  several.  While 
it  is  known  that  the  mango  has  been  cultivated  in  western  India 
since  a  remote  day,  and  we  find  it  to-day  naturalized  in  many 
places,  it  seems  probable  that  its  native  home  is  to  be  sought  in 
eastern  India,  Assam,  Burma,  or  possibly  farther  in  the  Malayan 
region. 

The  Chinese  traveler  Hwen  T'sang,  who  visited  Hindustan 
between  632  and  645  A.D.,  was  the  first  person,  so  far  as  known, 
to  bring  the  mango  to  the  notice  of  the  outside  world.  He 


THE   MANGO  87 

speaks  of  it  as  an-mo-lo,  which  Yule  and  Burnell  consider  a 
phonetization  of  the  Sanskrit  name  amra.  Several  centuries 
later,  in  1328,  Friar  Jordanus,  who  had  visited  the  Konkan 
and  learned  to  appreciate  the  progenitors  of  the  Goa  and  Bom- 
bay mangos,  wrote,  "There  is  another  tree  which  bears  a  fruit 
the  size  of  a  large  plum,  which  they  call  aniba."  He  found  it 
"sweet  and  pleasant."  The  common  name  which  he  used  is  a 
variation  of  the  north  Indian  am  or  amba.  Six  years  later 
(1334)  Ibn  Batuta  wrote  that  "the  mango  tree  ('anba)  resembles 
an  orange  tree,  but  is  larger  and  more  leafy;  no  other  tree 
gives  so  much  shade."  John  de  Marignolli,  in  1349,  says, 
"  They  also  have  another  tree  called  amburan,  having  a  fruit  of 
excellent  fragrance  and  flavor,  somewhat  like  a  peach."  Var- 
thema,  in  1510,  mentioned  the  mango  briefly,  using  the  name 
amba.  Sultan  Baber,  who  wrote  in  1526,  is  the  first  to  distin- 
guish between  choice  and  inferior  varieties.  He  says,  "Of 
the  vegetable  productions  peculiar  to  Hindustan  one  is  the 
mango,  (ambeh).  .  .  .  Such  mangos  as  are  good  are  excellent." 

The  island  of  Ormuz,  in  the  mouth  of  the  Persian  Gulf, 
was  settled  in  early  days  by  the  Portuguese  and  became  one 
of  the  great  emporiums  of  the  East.  Garcia  de  Orta,  a  Portu- 
guese from  Goa,  wrote  in  1563  that  the  mangos  of  Ormuz 
were  the  finest  in  the  Orient,  surpassing  those  of  India.  It  is 
probable,  however,  that  the  mangos  known  at  Ormuz  were  not 
grown  on  the  island  itself,  since  it  has  very  little  arable  land  and 
water  is  exceedingly  scarce.  The  Cronica  dos  Keys  Dormuz 
(1569)  says  that  mangos  were  brought  to  Ormuz  from  Arabia 
and  Persia.  Later,  in  1622,  P.  della  Valle  speaks  of  the  mangos 
grown  on  the  Persian  mainland  at  Minao,  only  a  few  miles 
from  Ormuz. 

The  Ain-i-Akbari,  an  encyclopedic  work  written  during  the 
reign  of  Akbar  (about  1590),  contains  a  lengthy  account  of  the 
mango.  Akbar,  it  may  be  remembered,  was  the  Mughal 
emperor  who  planted  the  Lakh  Bagh  at  Darbhanga,  and  in 


88        MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

other  ways  stimulated  the  cultivation  of  fruit-trees  through- 
out northern  India.  Abu-1  Fazl-i-'Allami,  author  of  the  Ain 
(translated  by  Blochmann),  writes  : 

"  The  Persians  call  this  fruit  Naghzak,  as  appears  from  a  verse  of 
Khusrau.  This  fruit  is  unrivalled  in  color,  smell,  and  taste  ;  and  some 
of  the  gourmands  of  Turan  and  Iran  place  it  above  muskmelons  and 
grapes.  In  shape  it  resembles  an  apricot,  or  a  quince,  or  a  pear,  or  a 
melon,  and  weighs  even  one  ser  and  upwards.  There  are  green,  yellow, 
red,  variegated,  sweet  and  subacid  mangos.  The  tree  looks  well, 
especially  when  young ;  it  is  larger  than  a  nut  tree,  and  its  leaves  re- 
semble those  of  a  willow,  but  are  larger.  The  new  leaves  appear  soon 
after  the  fall  of  the  old  ones  in  the  autumn,  and  look  green  and  yellow, 
orange,  peach-colored,  and  bright  red.  The  flower,  which  opens  in 
the  spring,  resembles  that  of  the  vine,  has  a  good  smell,  and  looks  very 
curious.  .  .  .  The  fruit  is  generally  taken  down  when  unripe,  and 
kept  in  a  particular  manner.  Mangos  ripened  in  this  manner  are 
much  finer.  They  commence  mostly  to  ripen  during  summer  and  are 
fit  to  be  eaten  during  the  rains ;  others  commence  in  the  rainy  season 
and  are  ripe  in  the  beginning  of  winter ;  the  latter  are  called  Bhadiyyah. 
Some  trees  bloom  and  yield  fruit  the  whole  year;  but  this  is  rare. 
Others  commence  to  ripen,  although  they  look  unripe ;  they  must  be 
quickly  taken  down,  else  the  sweetness  would  produce  worms.  Mangos 
are  to  be  found  everywhere  in  India,  especially  in  Bengal,  Gujrat, 
Malwah,  Khandesh,  and  the  Dekhan.  They  are  rarer  in  the  Panjab, 
where  their  cultivation  has,  however,  increased  since  his  Majesty  made 
Lahor  his  capital.  A  young  tree  will  bear  fruit  after  four  years.  They 
also  put  milk  and  treacle  around  the  tree,  which  makes  the  fruits 
sweeter.  Some  trees  yield  in  one  year  a  rich  harvest,  and  less  in  the 
next;  others  yield  for  one  year  no  fruit  at  all.  .  .  ." 

The  name  mango,  by  which  this  fruit  is  known  to  English- 
speaking  as  well  as  Spanish-speaking  peoples,  is  derived  from 
the  Portuguese  manga.  According  to  Yule  and  Burnell,  the 
Tamil  name  man-kay  or  man-gay  is  the  original  of  the  word, 
the  Portuguese  having  formed  manga  from  this  when  they  settled 
in  western  India.  Skeat  traces  the  origin  of  the  name  to  the 
Malayan  manga,  but  other  writers  consider  the  latter  to  have 
been  introduced  into  the  Malay  Archipelago  from  India.  The 
name  mango  is  used  in  German  and  Italian,  while  the  Dutch 
have  adopted  manga  or  mangga,  and  the  French  form  is  mangue. 


THE   MANGO  89 

In  the  Malay  Archipelago  and  in  many  parts  of  Polynesia 
mangos  are  plentiful.  W.  E.  Safford 1  writes,  "The  mango 
tree  is  not  well  established  in  Guam.  There  are  few  trees  on 
the  Island,  but  these  produce  fruit  of  the  finest  quality.  Guam 
mangos  are  large,  sweet,  fleshy,  juicy,  and  almost  entirely  free 
from  the  fiber  and  flavor  which  so  often  characterize  the  fruit." 
Excellent  mangos  were  formerly  shipped  from  the  French  island 
of  Tahiti  to  San  Francisco.  Many  choice  varieties  have  been 
planted  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  J.  E.  Higgins  has  written 
a  bulletin  on  mango  culture  in  this  region. 

On  the  tropical  coast  of  Africa,  extending  south  to  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  and  in  Madagascar,  mangos  are  common. 
The  French  island  of  Reunion  is  the  original  home  of  several 
varieties  now  cultivated  in  the  West  Indies  and  Florida. 

In  Queensland,  .Australia,  attention  has  been  given  to  the 
asexual  propagation  of  this  fruit,  and  a  limited  number  of 
choice  Indian  varieties  have  been  introduced. 

In  the  Mediterranean  region  the  species  is  not  entirely 
successful.  Trees  are  reported  to  have  produced  fruit  in 
several  localities,  but  nowhere  have  they  become  commonly 
grown.  In  Madeira  and  the  Canary  Islands  they  are  more 
at  home ;  Captain  Cook,  when  on  his  first  voyage  of  discovery, 
reported  in  1768  that  mangos  grew  almost  spontaneously  in 
Madeira.  C.  H.  Gable,  who  has  recently  worked  on  the  island, 
says  there  are  now  only  a  few  trees  to  be  found,  but  that  these 
bear  profusely. 

The  Portuguese  are  given  the  credit  for  bringing  the  mango 
to  America.  It  is  believed  to  have  been  first  planted  at  Bahia, 
Brazil,  at  an  uncertain  date  probably  not  earlier  than  1700. 
Captain  Cook  found  in  1768  that  the  fruit  was  produced  in 
great  abundance  at  Rio  de  Janeiro.  In  the  West  Indies  it  was 
first  introduced  at  Barbados  in  1742  or  thereabouts,  the  "  tree 
or  its  seed"  having  been  brought  from  Rio  de  Janeiro.  It  did 
1  Useful  Plants  of  Guam. 


90       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

not  reach  Jamaica  until  1782.  Its  introduction  into  the  latter 
island  is  described  by  Bryan  Edwards : 1  "  This  plant,  with 
several  others,  as  well  as  different  kinds  of  Seeds,  were 
found  on  board  a  French  ship  (bound  from  the  Isle  de  France 
for  Hispaniola)  taken  by  Captain  Marshall  of  his  Majesty's 
Ship  Flora,  one  of  Lord  Rodney's  Squadron,  in  June,  1782, 
and  sent  as  a  Prize  to  this  island.  By  Captain  Marshall, 
with  Lord  Rodney's  approbation,  the  whole  collection  was 
deposited  in  Mr.  East's  garden,  where  they  have  been  cul- 
tivated with  great  assiduity  and  success."  Thirty-two  years 
after  its  introduction,  John  Lunan  stated  that  the  mango  had 
become  one  of  the  commonest  fruit-trees  of  Jamaica. 

It  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  into  Mexico  at  the  same 
time  as  the  coffee  plant,  early  in  the  nineteenth  century,  the 
introducer  having  been  D.  Juan  Antonio  Gomez  of  Cordoba.  It 
is  evident  that  Mexico  has  received  mangos  from  two  sources ; 
some  from  the  West  Indies,  and  others  from  the  Philippines, 
brought  by  the  Spanish  galleons  which  traded  in  early  times 
between  Acapulco  and  Manila. 

The  cultivation  of  the  mango  under  glass  in  Europe  was 
attempted  at  an  early  day.  A  writer  in  Curtis'  Botanical 
Magazine  in  1850  says  :  "The  mango  is  recorded  to  have  been 
grown  in  the  hothouses  of  this  country  at  least  160  years  ago, 
but  it  is  only  within  the  last  twenty  years  that  it  has  come  into 
notice  as  a  fruit  capable  of  being  brought  to  perfection  in 
England.  The  first  and,  we  believe,  the  most  successful 
attempt  was  made  by  the  late  Earl  of  Powis,  in  his  garden  at 
Walcot,  where  he  had  a  lofty  hothouse  400  feet  long  and  between 
30  and  40  feet  wide  constructed  for  the  cultivation  of  the  mango 
and  other  rare  and  tropical  fruits;  but  within  these  last  few 
years  we  have  known  it  to  bear  fruit  in  other  gardens." 

In  the  United  States,  cultivation  of  the  mango  is  limited  to 
southern  Florida  and  southern  California.  It  is  believed  the 
1  History  of  the  West  Indies,  1793. 


THE  MANGO  91 

species  was  first  introduced  into  the  former  state  by  Henry 
Perrine,  who  sent  plants  from  Mexico  to  his  grant  of  land  below 
Miami  in  1833.  These  trees,  however,  perished  from  neglect 
after  Perrine's  death,  and  many  years  passed  before  another 
introduction  was  made.  According  to  P.  J.  Wester,  the  second 
and  successful  introduction  was  in  1861  or  1862,  by  Fletcher  of 
Miami.  The  trees  introduced  in  these  early  years  were  seed- 
lings. In  1885  Rev.  D.  G.  Watt  of  Pinellas  made  an  attempt  to 
introduce  the  choice  grafted  varieties  of  India.  According  to 
P.  N.  Reasoner,1  Watt  obtained  from  Calcutta  eight  plants 
of  the  two  best  sorts,  Bombay  and  Malda.  "They  were  nearly 
three  months  on  the  passage,  and  when  the  case  was  opened 
five  were  dead ;  another  died  soon  after,  and  the  two  remaining 
plants  were  starting  nicely,  when  the  freeze  destroyed  them 
entirely."  In  1888  Herbert  Beck  of  St.  Petersburg  obtained  a 
shipment  of  thirty-five  inarched  trees  from  Calcutta.  This  ship- 
ment included  the  following  varieties :  "Bombay  No.  23,  Bom- 
bay No.  24,  Chuckchokia,  Arbuthnot,  Gopalbhog,  Singapore, 
and  Alphonse."  In  the  latter  part  of  1889  Beck  reported  to  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  that  all  but  seven  of  the  trees  had 
died.  Further  details  regarding  this  importation  are  lacking, 
but  it  is  not  believed  that  any  of  the  trees  lived  to  produce  fruit. 
On  November  1,  1889,  the  Division  of  Pomology  at  Wash- 
ington received  through  Consul  B.  F.  Farnham  of  Bombay, 
India,  a  shipment  of  six  varieties,  as  follows :  "  Alphonse, 
Banchore,  Banchore  of  Dhiren,  Devarubria,  Mulgoba,  and 
Pirie."  The  trees  were  obtained  from  G.  Marshall  Woodrow,  at 
Poona.  After  their  arrival  in  this  country  they  were  for- 
warded to  horticulturists  on  Lake  Worth,  Florida.  Most  of 
the  trees  succumbed  to  successive  freezes,  but  in  1898  Elbridge 
Gale  reported  that  one  Alphonse  sent  to  Brelsford  Brothers 
was  still  alive,  but  was  not  doing  well ;  and  that  of  the  five 
trees  sent  to  himself  only  one,  a  Mulgoba,  had  survived.  This 
1  Division  of  Pomology,  Bull.  1. 


92       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

tree  began  to  bear  in  1898,  and  is  still  productive,  although  it 
has  not  borne  large  crops  in  recent  years.  The  superior  quality 
of  its  fruit  furnished  the  needed  stimulus  to  the  development  of 
mango  culture  in  this  country,  and  considerable  numbers  of 
Mulgobas  were  soon  propagated  and  planted  along  the  lower 
east  coast  of  Florida.  Recently,  numerous  other  Indian  varie- 
ties have  fruited  in  that  state,  some  of  them  more  valuable 
from  a  commercial  standpoint  than  Mulgoba,  so  that  the  latter 
probably  will  not  retain  the  prominent  position  which  it  has  held. 
As  regards  California,  the  exact  date  at  which  the  mango  was 
first  introduced  is  not  known,  but  it  is  believed  by  F.  Franceschi 
that  it  was  first  planted  at  Santa  Barbara,  between  1880  and 
1885. 

COMPOSITION  AND  USES  OF  THE  FRUIT 

The  mango  contains  much  sugar.  The  proportions  of  other 
constituents,  such  as  acids  and  protein,  are  low  in  the  ripe 
fruit.  The  following  table,  from  analyses  made  in  Hawaii  by 
Alice  R.  Thompson,  shows  the  composition  of  three  well- 
known  Indian  varieties : 


TABLE  II.     COMPOSITION  OP  THE  MANGO 


VARIETY 

TOTAL 
SOLIDS 

ASH 

ACIDS 

PROTEIN 

TOTAL 
SUGARS 

F..T 

Pairi   .          .... 

<y 
/o 

20  52 

% 
0343 

% 
0221 

% 
0456 

% 

14  78 

% 

0032 

Alphonse      .... 
Totapari       .... 

20.92 
15.27 

.469 

.277 

.373 
.578 

.919 
.475 

14.64 
11.48 

.149 
.065 

In  commenting  on  these  and  other  data,  Miss  Thompson  1 
says:    "The  total  solids  are  high  for  the  average  fresh  fruit; 

1  Hawaii  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.,  1914. 


THE   MANGO  93 

the  total  sugars  vary  from  11  to  20  per  cent,  according  to  the 
variety.  In  all  samples  the  sucrose  is  the  principal  sugar 
present.  The  protein  in  several  varieties  is  a  little  higher  than 
is  usual  in  fruits.  The  acidity  varies  and  is  as  much  as  0.5 
per  cent  in  one  variety.  Qualitative  tests  showed  the  presence 
of  considerable  amounts  of  tannin,  but  no  starch  was  apparent." 

The  unripe  fruit  is  characterized  by  the  presence  of  malic 
and  tartaric  acids  in  considerable  quantities.  An  analysis 
published  in  the  Pharmacographia  Indica  shows  the  percentage 
of  tartaric  (with  a  trace  of  citric)  to  be  7.04,  and  the  remaining 
free  acid  as  malic,  12.66. 

The  Agricultural  News  (Barbados,  September  27,  1913) 
published  a  comparison  of  the  chemical  composition  of  the 
apple  with  that  of  the  Carabao  mango,  one  of  the  principal 
Philippine  sorts.  It  was  found  that  "The  former  fruit  con- 
tains 14.96  per  cent  solids,  whereas  the  mango  contains  17.2. 
In  regard  to  sugar  (total)  the  first-named  fruit  contains  about 
7.58  per  cent,  whereas  the  mango  has  13.24.  As  regards  pro- 
tein (nitrogenous  matter)  the  apple  has  about  0.22  per  cent, 
and  the  mango  0.22  per  cent  also.  The  total  acidity  in  the 
apple  is  1.04  per  cent,  whereas  in  the  mango  it  is  only  0.14 
per  cent.  In  making  these  comparisons  we  have  purposely 
taken  one  of  the  less  nutritious  varieties  of  mango,  and  it  may 
safely  be  said  that  in  regard  to  chemical  composition  the 
balance  is  on  the  side  of  the  mango." 

While  the  mango  is  most  commonly  eaten  as  a  fresh  fruit, 
it  can  be  utilized  in  many  different  ways.  Sir  George  Watt 1 
says: 

"  Besides  being  eaten  as  a  ripe  fruit,  numerous  preparations 
are  made  of  it.  When  green  it  is  cut  into  slices,  and  after 
extraction  of  the  stone,  is  put  into  curries,  or  made  into  pickles 
with  other  ingredients  or  into  preserves  and  jellies.  When 
young  and  green  it  is  boiled,  strained,  mixed  with  milk  and 
1  Commercial  Products  of  India. 


94       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

sugar,  and  thus  prepared  as  the  custard  known  as  mangophul, 
or  dried  and  made  into  the  native  ambchur.  When  very  young 
it  may  be  cut  into  small  pieces  and  eaten  in  salad.  So  again, 
the  ripe  fruit  is  used  in  curries  and  salads,  and  the  expressed 
juice  when  spread  on  plates  and  allowed  to  dry  is  formed  into 
the  thin  cakes  known  as  ambsath." 

In  the  United  States,  mangos  have  up  to  the  present  been 
used  chiefly  as  dessert  fruits.  To  a  less  extent  they  have  been 
made  into  chutney,  —  the  spicy  sauce  well  known  to  all  those 
who  have  traveled  in  the  Orient, — preserves,  sauces,  and  pies. 
For  these  purposes  the  fruit  is  taken  before  fully  ripe.  The 
"mango  pickles"  sold  in  the  northern  United  States  are  not 
made  from  the  mango,  but  from  a  sweet  pepper;  the  use  of 
the  name  mango  in  this  connection  is  unwarranted. 

Mangos  are  canned  in  the  same  manner  as  peaches.  Recently 
a  firm  at  Muzaffarpur,  India,  has  undertaken  to  develop  an 
export  trade  in  preserved  mangos.  About  18,000  cans  were 
shipped  to  England  in  a  single  year.  Consul  General  William 
H.  Michael  said  of  the  product,  "  1  have  opened  one  can  of  the 
Bombay  Extra  mangos  and  find  that  they  are  carefully  packed 
and  retain  their  flavor  as  well  as  could  be  expected  of  this  sort 
of  fruit.  In  fact  they  are  as  well  preserved  and  retain  their 
flavor  quite  as  well  as  do  peaches  canned  in  California." 

Hindu  and  Muhammadan  writers  on  Materia  Medica  discuss 
at  length  the  medicinal  virtues  of  the  mango  : 

"Shortly,  we  may  say  that  they  consider  the  ripe  fruit  to  be  in- 
vigorating and  refreshing,  fattening,  and  slightly  laxative  and  diuretic ; 
but  the  rind  and  fiber,  as  well  as  the  unripe  fruit,  to  be  astringent  and 
acid.  The  latter  when  pickled  is  much  used  on  account  of  its  stomachic 
and  appetizing  qualities.  Unripe  mangos  peeled  and  cut  from  the 
stone  and  dried  in  the  sun  form  the  well-known  Amchur  or  Ambosi 
(Amrapesi,  Sans.,)  so  largely  used  in  India  as  an  article  of  diet ;  as 
its  acidity  is  chiefly  due  to  the  presence  of  citric  acid,  it  is  a  valuable 
anti-scorbutic  ;  it  is  also  called  Am-ki-chhitta  and  Am-khushk.  The 
blossom,  kernel,  and  bark  are  considered  to  be  cold,  dry  and  astringent, 
and  are  used  in  diarrhoaa,  etc.  The  smoke  of  the  burning  leaves  is 


THE   MANGO  95 

supposed  to  have  a  curative  effect  in  some  affections  of  the  throat. 
According  to  the  author  of  the  Makhzan,  the  Hindus  make  a  confection 
of  the  baked  pulp  of  the  unripe  fruit  mixed  with  sugar,  which  in  time 
of  plague  or  cholera  they  take  internally  and  rub  all  over  the  body ; 
it  is  also  stated  in  the  same  work  that  the  midribs  of  the  leaves  calcined 
are  used  to  remove  warts  on  the  eyelids."  (Dymock,  Warden,  and 
Hooper.) 

CLIMATE  AND  SOIL 

While  the  mango  grows  in  humid  tropical  regions  subject  to 
heavy  rains  throughout  the  year,  it  is  not  successfully  cultivated 
for  its  fruit  under  these  conditions.  It  requires  the  stimulus  of 
a  dry  season  to  fruit  abundantly.  To  a  certain  extent  this 
stimulus  can  be  given  by  artificial  means,  but  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  best  regions  for  commercial  mango  culture  are 
those  in  which  there  is  a  well-marked  dry  season  occurring  at 
the  proper  time  of  year. 

This  is  illustrated  by  conditions  in  India.  Lower  Bengal 
is  a  humid  region  in  which  moisture-loving  tropical  plants  are 
completely  at  home.  Mango  trees  in  this  region  are  ragged  in 
appearance,  with  foliage  of  an  unhealthy  color,  and  the  fruit 
does  not  ripen  well.  In  sharp  contrast,  the  trees  at  Saharanpur, 
on  the  dry  plains  of  northern  India,  are  vigorous  and  stocky  in 
habit,  with  abundant  foliage  of  rich  green  color.  They  fruit  more 
profusely  than  those  in  the  moist  lowlands,  and  the  fruit 
ripens  perfectly.  Saharanpur  lies  at  an  elevation  of  1000  feet, 
and  has  an  annual  rainfall  of  about  thirty-five  inches.  During 
the  season  when  mangos  are  ripening,  no  rain  falls  and  the  air 
is  hot  and  dry.  Temperature  of  100°  F.,  continued  throughout 
day  and  night,  are  common.  The  monsoon,  or  rainy  season, 
lasts  but  a  few  months. 

The  total  amount  of  rainfall  is  not  so  important  as  the  season 
during  which  it  occurs.  Where  the  dry  season  coincides  with 
the  normal  flowering  time  of  the  mango,  good  crops  of  fruit  can 
be  expected,  but  it  seems  doubtful  whether  the  finer  grafted 


96        MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

mangos  can  be  cultivated  successfully  in  regions  where  there 
is  much  precipitation  during  the  flowering  season.  Some  of  the 
seedling  races  will  fruit  under  these  conditions,  but  the  choice 
Indian  varieties  are  more  exacting  in  their  climatic  requirements. 

On  this  point  G.  N.  Collins  l  states  :  "The  fact  that  the  tree 
may  thrive  in  a  given  locality  and  yet  fail  to  produce  fruit 
should  always  be  kept  in  mind.  It  may  be  considered  as 
proven  that  the  mango  will  be  prolific  only  in  regions  subjected 
to  a  considerable  dry  season.  On  the  moist  north  side  of  Porto 
Rico  the  trees  grow  luxuriantly,  but  they  are  not  nearly  so 
prolific  nor  is  the  fruit  of  such  good  quality  as  on  the  dry  south 
side,  and  in  the  very  dry  region  about  Yauco  and  at  Cabo  Rojo 
the  fruit  seemed  at  its  best,  while  its  abundance  was  attested 
by  the  fact  that  fine  fruit  was  selling  as  low  as  12  for  a  cent. 
In  Guatemala  and  Mexico  the  mango  was  found  at  its  best  only 
in  regions  where  severe  dry  seasons  prevailed." 

Fawcett  and  Harris  2  report  similar  conditions  in  Jamaica. 
They  say :  "  Although  the  mango  grows  freely  everywhere,  it 
is  not  a  fruitful  tree  in  every  district ;  in  the  southern  plains 
and  the  low,  dry  limestone  hills  it  produces  enormous  crops 
year  after  year,  and  very  often  two  crops  a  year,  the  main  crop 
from  May  to  August,  and  the  second  crop  later  in  the  year.  .  .  . 
In  humid  districts  and  along  the  northern  coast  the  tree  is 
not  at  all  fruitful,  except  in  very  dry  years,  and  in  the  wet 
districts  like  Castleton  it  rarely  fruits." 

In  the  Botanic  Garden  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil,  there  is  a 
magnificent  avenue  of  mango  trees  planted  by  the  emperor  Dom 
Joao  VI  more  than  a  century  ago.  So  far  as  known  these  trees 
have  never  matured  any  fruits.  They  blossom,  and  occasionally 
set  fruits,  but  the  latter  invariably  drop  off  before  reaching 
maturity.  J.  C.  Willis,  former  director  of  the  garden,  attributes 
this  to  the  fact  that  they  are  planted  on  low  wet  ground. 

1  Bull.  28,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

2  Bull,  of  the  Bot.  Dept.,  vol.  8,  1901. 


THE   MANGO  97 

Other  mango  trees  in  the  immediate  vicinity  but  on  higher 
ground  produce  fruit  regularly. 

Mangos  can  be  grown  successfully  on  soils  of  several  different 
types.  In  Porto  Rico  deep  sandy  loam  has  given  excellent 
results.  On  this  soil  the  tree  makes  rapid  growth  and  attains 
great  size.  The  sandy  soils  of  southern  Florida  have  proved 
satisfactory.  Clay,  provided  it  is  well  drained,  seems  to  be 
good. 

In  India,  some  of  the  best  mango  districts  are  situated 
on  the  great  Indo-Gangetic  plain,  where  the  soil  is  a  deep,  rich 
alluvial  loam.  This  may  perhaps  be  considered  the  best  of 
all  mango  soils.  An  analysis  of  surface  soil  from  the  mango 
orchards  in  the  Saharanpur  Botanic  Garden  shows  that  it 
contains : 

Lime  (CaO) 1.20  % 

Magnesia  (MgO) 1.18  % 

Potash  (K2O) 2.73  % 

Phosphoric  acid  (P2O6) 0.18  % 

Nitrogen 0.105% 

C.  F.  Kinman  1  says : 

"A  shallow  soil  underlain  with  stone  or  hardpan,  although 
sufficiently  deep  to  produce  shrubs  or  other  low-growing  wild 
vegetation,  will  not  satisfy  the  needs  of  the  deep  rooted  mango, 
whose  growth  in  such  ground  will  be  slow  and  its  yield  poor, 
at  least  after  the  first  few  years.  The  application  of  fertilizers, 
however,  will  materially  decrease  the  depth  of  the  soil  re- 
quired. .  .  .  Mango  trees  are  often  found  on  very  light,  un- 
fertile sand,  which  may  be  a  few  feet  in  depth,  and  still  produce 
flourishing  growth  if  the  subsoil  is  suitable.  As  the  mango, 
like  most  other  fruit  trees,  thrives  best  on  a  deep  loose  loam 
with  good  drainage  and  a  high  percentage  of  humus,  those  who 
intend  planting  it  commercially  should  secure,  if  possible,  this 
type  of  soil." 

1  Porto  Rico  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.,  24. 


98       MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

Much  more  important  than  the  mechanical  or  chemical 
composition,  in  most  cases,  is  the  drainage  of  the  land.  The 
mango  avenue  in  the  Botanic  Garden  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  illus- 
trates this.  If  the  subsoil  is  permanently  wet  or  poorly  drained, 
the  tree  cannot  be  expected  to  fruit  profusely. 

While  the  mango  is  more  susceptible  to  frost  than  the  hardier 
races  of  the  avocado,  mature  trees  have  withstood  temperatures 
below  the  freezing  point  without  injury.  In  general  it  may 
be  said  that  most  varieties,  if  not  in  active  growth  at  the  time 
cold  weather  strikes  them,  will  withstand  28°  or  29°  above  zero, 
provided  such  temperatures  are  not  of  long  duration.  Young 
trees  in  vigorous  growth  may  be  injured  seriously  by  a  tem- 
perature of  32°.  At  Miami,  Florida,  five-year-old  trees  of  one 
or  two  varieties  were  killed  outright  by  a  freeze  of  26.5°.  Old 
seedling  trees  have  gone  through  temperatures  lower  than  this 
without  losing  more  than  the  smallest  branches.  The  cul- 
tivated kinds  show  slight  differences  in  hardiness.  Observa- 
tions have  been  made  at  Saharanpur  and  lists  drawn  up  show- 
ing the  relative  susceptibility  to  frost  of  many  varieties.  The 
vagaries  of  the  1917  freeze  in  southern  Florida,  however,  have 
resulted  in  an  impression  that  such  lists  are  not  altogether 
dependable,  and  that  much  depends  on  local  conditions,  the 
physiological  state  of  the  tree,  and  other  factors  as  yet  not 
understood. 

The  mango  resists  heavy  winds  much  better  than  does  the 
avocado.  The  wood  is  tough,  and  ordinarily  the  tree  (except 
in  the  Cambodiana  group)  assumes  a  low  compact  form  if  not 
crowded.  It  is  not  essential,  therefore,  that  the  young  tree 
be  trained  with  a  view  to  making  it  of  such  form  that  it  will 
be  able  to  withstand  a  hurricane  or  cyclone. 

Mango  culture  in  California  presents  some  unusual  aspects. 
Although  experience  is  limited,  it  is  apparent  that  the  great 
variations  in  temperature  between  night  and  day,  coupled  with 
the  comparatively  cold  winters,  have  the  effect  of  retarding 


THE  MANGO  99 

the  growth  of  the  tree,  as  well  as  preventing  the  rapid  develop- 
ment of  the  fruit.  The  dry  ness  of  the  climate,  on  the  other 
hand,  makes  the  tree  bear  at  an  early  age  and  yield  very  heavily. 
In  certain  situations  near  the  sea,  the  summers  are  so  cool 
that  the  fruit  does  not  ripen  properly.  This  has  proved  to  be 
true  of  Santa  Barbara,  Hollywood,  and  San  Diego.  In  the 
foothill  regions,  where  the  summers  are  warmer  than  near  the 
sea,  good  mangos  have  been  produced.  It  is  necessary  to 
protect  the  trees  from  frost  while  they  are  young;  even  large 
trees  are  sometimes  injured  by  an  unusually  severe  winter. 
All  of  the  mangos  which  have  fruited  in  California  up  to  the 
present  time  have  been  seedlings  or  inferior  budded  varieties : 
only  recently  have  budded  trees  of  choice  varieties  been  planted. 
Localities  such  as  Glendora  and  Monrovia,  which  have  warm 
summers  and  are  comparatively  free  from  winter  frosts,  are 
probably  the  most  suitable  for  mango  culture.  The  hot  summer 
weather  of  such  districts  hastens  the  development  of  the  fruit 
and  brings  it  to  maturity  before  the  onset  of  cool  weather  in 
autumn. 

Commercially,  mango  culture  has  never  been  considered 
promising  in  California.  It  should  be  possible  to  produce 
good  fruit  on  a  limited  scale  in  a  few  of  the  most  protected 
situations,  but  the  greater  number  of  mango  trees  which  have 
been  planted  in  the  state  have  been  killed  by  frost. 

In  Florida,  commercial  mango  culture  is  successful  from  Palm 
Beach  on  the  east  coast  and  Punta  Gorda  on  the  west  coast 
down  to  the  southern  end  of  the  peninsula.  There  are  a  few 
trees  as  far  north  as  New  Smyrna  on  the  east  coast  and  Tarpon 
Springs  on  the  west,  but  the  hazards  are  great  in  any  except 
the  warmest  parts  of  the  state. 

The  largest  commercial  plantings  have  been  made  in  the 
vicinity  of  Miami.  There  are  a  few  small  groves  near  Palm 
Beach  and  Fort  Myers.  At  Oneco,  near  Bradentown,  the 
Royal  Palm  Nurseries  have  one  of  the  best  variety  collections  in 


100     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

the  state,  but  it  is  necessary  to  protect  the  trees  during  the 
winter.  They  are  grown  within  a  large  shed  whose  top  is  made 
of  thin  muslin  which  can  be  removed  in  the  summer. 

In  southern  Florida  the  weather  is  normally  dry  during  the 
flowering  season.  Sometimes  there  are  light  rains  in  this 
period,  or  many  cloudy  damp  days.  In  such  seasons  many  of 
the  Indian  mangos,  notably  Mulgoba,  fail  to  bear  good  crops, 
although  the  seedling  mangos  which  are  found  throughout  this 
region  fruit  abundantly.  Mangos  differ  in  their  ability  to 
flower  and  fruit  under  adverse  climatic  conditions.  Some  of 
the  Indian  varieties  will  only  flower  after  a  period  of  three  or 
four  weeks  of  dry  sunny  weather;  certain  Cuban  seedling 
races  (and  those  of  other  countries  as  well),  on  the  other  hand, 
will  insist  on  flowering  even  though  the  spring  months  are 
unusually  wet ;  and  if  one  crop  of  flowers  is  destroyed  by  the 
anthracnose  fungus,  as  is  often  the  case,  they  will  flower  a 
second  and  even  a  third  time  in  an  attempt  to  produce  fruit. 
Methods  of  encouraging  the  Indian  varieties  to  flower  and  fruit 
are  discussed  in  a  later  paragraph. 

The  soils  of  the  Fort  Myers  region  produce  larger  trees  than 
those  of  Miami.  The  latter,  which  are  mainly  light  sands  under- 
laid with  oolitic  limestone,  are  nevertheless  satisfactory  when 
properly  fertilized.  The  mango  requires  much  less  fertilizer 
than  the  avocado  or  the  citrus  fruits,  but  it  only  reaches  large 
size  when  grown  upon  reasonably  deep  soil. 

Cuban  soils  are  well  suited  to  the  mango.  In  commercial 
orchards  near  Habana,  however,  the  anthracnose  fungus  has 
caused  great  damage  and  discouraged  some  of  the  growers. 
Methods  of  combating  this  pest  are  discussed  under  the  heading 
diseases.  In  Porto  Rico  at  least  two  orchards  of  considerable 
size  have  been  planted  with  choice  Indian  varieties.  Both  of 
these  are  on  the  north  side  of  the  island,  where  the  soil  is 
excellent  but  the  climate  somewhat  too  moist  for  the  best  crop 
results. 


THE   MANGO  101 

CULTIVATION 

The  best  site  for  the  mango  orchard  is  one  which  has  good 
drainage  together  with  soil  of  such  nature  that  it  will  dry  out 
thoroughly  when  no  rain  falls  for  a  few  weeks.  In  regions 
where  the  soil  is  deep  and  the  trees  consequently  grow  to  large 
size,  they  should  not  be  set  closer  than  35  by  35  feet.  There 
are  a  few  dwarf  varieties,  such  as  D'Or,  which  can  be  set  much 
closer  than  this,  but  most  of  the  Indian  kinds  ultimately  make 
trees  of  good  size.  G.  Marshall  Woodrow  recommends  plant- 
ing 20  by  20  feet,  but  in  America  this  has  not  been  found  a  good 
practice.  Closer  planting  than  30  by  30  feet  is  undesirable 
except  with  dwarf  varieties.  Seedlings  grow  to  larger  size  than 
budded  or  grafted  trees,  and  need  proportionately  more  space. 
On  deep  soils  they  will  usually  come  to  crowd  each  other  in 
time  if  planted  less  than  40  or  45  feet  apart. 

April  and  May  are  considered  the  best  months  for  planting 
in  Florida.  Midsummer  planting  is,  however,  much  more 
successful  than  with  the  avocado.  The  principal  point  to  be 
observed  is  the  condition  of  the  young  tree  at  the  time  of  plant- 
ing. If  it  is  not  in  active  growth,  it  can  be  set  at  almost  any 
season  of  the  year,  provided  the  weather  is  warm.  In  India 
it  is  recommended  to  plant  at  the  beginning  of  the  rainy 
season. 

Holes  2  to  3  feet  broad  and  deep  should  be  prepared  in  ad- 
vance of  planting.  Woodrow  recommends  that  20  pounds  of 
fresh  bones  be  placed  in  the  bottom  of  each  hole  before  filling 
in  the  soil.  In  Florida  a  small  amount  of  commercial  fertilizer 
is  commonly  used.  The  object  in  preparing  the  holes  is  the 
same  as  in  planting  other  fruits,  viz.,  to  loosen  the  subsoil  so 
that  the  roots  can  develop  readily  in  all  directions,  and  to 
place  in  the  ground  a  supply  of  food  for  the  young  tree.  It  is 
sometimes  recommended  that  stable  manure  be  incorporated 
with  the  soil ;  this  is  a  desirable  practice,  but  it  should  be  kept 


102     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

in  mind  that  stable  manure  is  not,  generally  speaking,  suitable 
for  bearing  mango  trees. 

Well-grown  budded  or  grafted  trees,  when  shipped  from 
the  nursery,  are  eighteen  inches  to  three  feet  in  height,  with 
stems  one-half  inch  in  thickness.  They  should  be  stocky  and 
straight,  with  foliage  of  rich  green  color.  Inarched  trees  are 
sometimes  weak,  crooked,  and  may  have  poor  unions.  While 
many  inarched  trees  are  produced  and  planted  in  certain  parts 
of  the  world,  notably  in  India,  they  seem  much  less  desirable 
than  the  sturdy  budded  trees  grown  in  the  nurseries  of  Florida. 

As  soon  as  the  young  trees  have  been  planted  in  the  field, 
they  should  be  shaded  with  a  light  framework  covered  with 
burlap  or  other  cheap  material.  Palm  leaves  and  pine  boughs 
may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  The  trees  should,  of  course, 
be  watered  liberally  as  soon  as  they  are  planted,  and  in  most 
regions  the  ground  around  the  base  of  each  should  be  mulched 
with  straw  or  other  loose  material. 

During  the  first  four  or  five  years,  the  trees  should  be  en- 
couraged to  make  vigorous  rapid  growth.  After  that  the  aim 
of  the  orchardist  is  to  make  them  produce  good  crops  of  fruit. 
The  object  of  early  culture  is,  therefore,  distinct  from  that  of 
later  years  and  somewhat  different  methods  are  required.  The 
young  growing  tree  can  be  given  both  water  and  fertilizer  in 
liberal  quantities;  the  mature  tree,  on  the  other  hand,  must 
be  encouraged  to  flower  and  fruit  by  withholding  water  and 
fertilizer  during  certain  portions  of  the  year. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  the  cultural  requirements  of  the 
mango  are  not  yet  thoroughly  understood.  Varieties  differ 
greatly  in  their  reaction  to  the  stimulus  of  tillage,  irrigation, 
and  manuring.  A  thorough  study  has  not  yet  been  made  of 
the  requirements  even  of  a  single  variety.  Horticulturists  in 
India  have  devoted  a  limited  amount  of  attention  to  the 
subject ;  but  the  mango  seems  to  differ  so  markedly  from  other 
fruits  which  have  been  subjected  to  systematic  cultivation 


THE   MANGO  103 

that  much  further  study  will  be  needed  before  its  habits  are 
thoroughly  understood. 

The  amount  and  character  of  tillage  given  to  the  orchard 
varies  in  different  regions.  In  most  parts  of  the  tropics  little 
attention  is  given  to  the  mature  tree.  The  soil  beneath  its 
spreading  branches  is  often  firmly  packed  down  by  the  hoofs 
of  domestic  animals;  or  weeds  may  be  allowed  to  grow  un- 
checked. Needless  to  say,  such  treatment  has  little  to  recom- 
mend it.  In  Florida  the  land  is  sometimes  given  shallow 
cultivation  during  part  of  the  year,  and  at  other  seasons  legu- 
minous cover-crops  may  be  grown  upon  it,  particularly  if  the 
orchard  is  not  yet  of  bearing  age.  It  is  evident  that  the 
amount  of  nitrogenous  fertilizer  required  by  bearing  groves  is 
small.  Over-stimulation  results  in  vigorous  development  of 
foliage  but  no  fruit. 

Growers  of  grafted  mangos  in  India  resort  to  various  expe- 
dients to  check  the  vegetative  activity  of  the  tree  and  encourage 
the  development  of  fruit.  Thomas  Firminger 1  says:  "The 
mango,  like  all  other  fruit  trees,  is  much  benefited  by  having 
the  earth  around  it  removed,  and  the  roots  left  exposed  for  a 
space  of  two  or  three  weeks.  This  should  be  done  in  November, 
and  in  December  the  roots  should  be  well  supplied  with  manure, 
and  then  covered  in  again  with  entirely  fresh  earth,  and  not 
that  which  had  been  previously  removed."  Woodrow  notes 
that  "the  mango  growers  near  Mazagon,  Bombay,  who  pro- 
duced such  famous  fruit  before  the  land  was  occupied  with 
cotton  mills,  applied  ten  pounds  of  salt  to  each  tree  at  the  end 
of  September;  this  would  arrest  growth  in  October  and 
November,  and  encourage  the  formation  of  flower  buds.  In  a 
moist  climate,  and  the  intervening  ground  occupied  with  irri- 
gated crops,  this  system  is  highly  commendable,  but  with  a 
dry  climate  it  is  unnecessary." 

The  failure  of  many  varieties  to  fruit  abundantly  is  often 
1  Manual  of  Gardening  for  India. 


104     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

attributed  to  imperfect  pollination,  attacks  of  insect  pests, 
and  other  causes  which  are  discussed  in  a  later  paragraph.  It 
seems  probable  that  too  much  emphasis  has  in  the  past  been 
placed  on  these  factors,  and  that  the  problem  is  largely  a  phys- 
iological one,  connected  with  the  nutrition  of  the  tree.  It  is  for 
this  reason  that  the  two  quotations  above  are  illuminative. 
They  show  that  the  nutritional  problem  has  been  recognized 
by  early  students  of  mango  culture ;  yet  no  one  has  taken  up 
the  subject  in  sufficient  detail  to  master  it. 

The  mango  requires  less  water  than  the  avocado,  although 
young  trees  are  benefited  by  frequent  irrigations.  In  Florida, 
old  mango  trees  will  be  found  growing  and  fruiting  in  fence 
corners  and  abandoned  gardens  where  they  have  to  depend 
entirely  on  rainfall.  They  are  much  more  successful  under  such 
conditions  than  the  avocado.  Orchards  of  budded  or  grafted 
trees  are  rarely  irrigated  after  the  trees  have  attained  a  few 
years'  growth.  In  other  regions  treatment  must  be  different. 
In  California,  for  example,  irrigation  should  be  practiced  as 
with  citrus  fruits.  J.  E.  Higgins  remarks  concerning  Hawaii : 
"Liberal  moisture  must  be  supplied  to  the  roots,  from  50  to  70 
inches  per  year  being  required,  according  to  the  retentive 
power  of  the  soil  and  the  rate  of  evaporation.  In  the  case  of 
bearing  trees  the  heaviest  irrigation  should  be  given  from  the 
time  when  the  flower  buds  are  about  to  open  until  several 
weeks  after  the  fruiting  is  over,  withholding  large  amounts  of 
water  during  two  or  three  months  preceding  the  flowering 
season."  Regarding  India,  Woodrow  says:  "When  fruiting 
age  is  attained  there  need  be  no  necessity  for  irrigation  from  the 
time  the  rain  ceases  in  September  till  after  the  flowers  have 
'set,'  that  is,  till  the  young  fruit  appears ;  thereafter,  irrigation 
over  the  area  covered  by  the  branches  once  in  fifteen  days  or  so 
is  desirable  while  the  fruit  is  increasing  in  size,  but  may  be 
discontinued  when  ripening  approaches." 

All  writers  point  out  the  necessity  of  applying  a  check  to 


THE   MANGO  105 

vegetative  growth  previous  to  the  flowering  season.  Ringing 
and  hacking  the  trunk  are  two  of  the  commonest  practices,  while 
root-pruning  is  occasionally  performed  in  India.  Recent 
experiments  indicate  that  a  liberal  application  of  potash  is 
extremely  beneficial.  Mulgoba  trees  at  Miami,  Florida,  and 
Guanajay,  Cuba,  which  were  heavily  fertilized  with  potash, 
produced  much  larger  crops  than  those  fertilized  in  the  ordinary 
way.  A  standard  commercial  fertilizer  especially  prepared  in 
Florida  for  use  on  mango  trees  contains : 

Ammonia 5  to  6  % 

Phosphoric  acid 7  to  9  % 

Potash 9  to  11% 

These  elements  are  derived  from  ground  bone,  nitrate  of  soda, 
dried  blood,  dissolved  bone  black,  and  high-grade  potash  salts. 

Woodrow  recommends  for  India  that  young  trees  be  fer- 
tilized liberally  with  barnyard  manure;  but  he  adds  that  as 
soon  as  they  come  into  bearing  the  application  of  manure  must 
be  stopped,  and  leguminous  cover-crops  planted  between  the 
rows.  These  crops  can  be  plowed  under,  thereby  enriching  the 
soil  in  the  necessary  degree  and  at  the  same  time  keeping  down 
weeds.  The  best  legumes  for  this  purpose,  according  to  Wood- 
row,  are  Crotalaria  juncea,  Cicer  arietinum,  Phaseolus  aconiti- 
jolius,  and  Phaseolus  Mungo.  P.  J.  Wester  says,  "The  velvet 
bean  (Stizolobium  Deeringianum),  Lyon  bean  (Mucuna  Lyoni), 
the  cowpea  (Vlgna  Catjang)  and  related  species  may  be  used 
with  good  success  in  the  Philippines.  Of  these  the  Lyon  bean 
is  preferable  in  the  Philippines,  since  here  it  produces  a  greater 
amount  of  growth  per  acre  than  any  other  legume."  In 
Florida  velvet  beans,  cowpeas,  and  the  bonavist  bean  (Dolichos 
Lablab)  have  been  used.  Growers  should  plant  a  number  of 
different  legumes  experimentally  to  determine  which  are  the  best 
for  their  particular  localities. 

Numerous  experiments  to  test  the  effectiveness  of  girdling 


106     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

and  root-pruning  have  been  made  at  the  Porto  Rico  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station.     C.  F.  Kinman  reports  of  them : 

"  Girdling,  branch  pruning,  and  root  pruning  are  common  practices, 
but  they  should  be  used  with  caution  and  moderation,  as  a  tree  may 
easily  be  so  severely  injured  as  to  prevent  its  bearing  for  one  or  more 
seasons.  Pruning  back  the  ends  of  the  branches  to  induce  blossoming 
has  been  practiced  with  good  results  at  the  station.  In  the  operation, 
from  a  few  inches  to  a  foot  of  the  end  of  the  branch  was  removed, 
depending  upon  the  stage  of  maturity  of  the  wood,  leaving  a  few  nodes 
from  which  the  leaves  had  not  fallen.  From  these  nodes  blossom^ 
developed  profusely,  no  blossoms  appearing  on  untreated  branches. 
To  secure  best  results,  the  pruning  should  be  done  in  the  late  summer 
or  fall,  several  months  before  the  blossoming  time.  This  method  should 
be  employed  on  branches  which  are  too  low  or  too  crowded  or  on 
those  which  would  have  to  be  removed  later  to  improve  the  shape  of 
the  tree,  as  after  a  branch  is  pruned  it  makes  little  growth  for  several 
weeks  or  months  or  even  for  a  year  or  more  after  the  fruit  ripens,  and 
by  this  time  it  may  be  well  overgrown  by  surrounding  branches. 

"As  good  results  have  been  obtained  from  girdling  as  from  other 
methods.  A  branch  one  to  three  inches  in  diameter  was  selected  on 
each  of  a  number  of  trees  and  a  band  of  bark  removed  in  September. 
These  branches  produced  good  crops  the  following  spring,  even  when  no 
fruits  at  all  were  borne  on  the  remainder  of  the  tree.  Such  favorable 
results,  however,  were  obtained  on  varieties  which  are  inclined  to  bear 
well  and  where  the  band  of  bark  removed  was  wide  enough  to  prevent 
the  new  bark  from  growing  over  the  area  too  rapidly.  Bands  one- 
eighth  and  even  one-quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter  were  overgrown  so 
quickly  that  no  effect  was  seen  on  the  branch.  Bands  from  one-half 
to  three-quarters  of  an  inch  produce  the  best  results,  as  they  do  not 
heal  over  until  after  the  blossoming  season,  the  callus  growing  down- 
ward over  the  wound  at  the  rate  of  one  inch  a  year.  ...  As  removing 
enough  bark  to  induce  fruiting  is  very  injurious  to  the  branch,  this 
practice  is  most  profitably  employed  on  undesirable  branches  which  are 
to  be  removed  later. 

"  Root  pruning  has  been  recommended,  although  no  definite  results 
have  been  noted  from  the  experiments  with  it.  It  is  best  accomplished 
by  cutting  into  the  soil  with  a  sharp  spade  about  two  feet  inside  the 
tips  of  the  branches.  In  extreme  cases  the  cutting  may  encircle  the 
tree  to  a  depth  of  eight  or  ten  inches  in  heavy  soil  and  even  deeper  in 
light  soil  where  the  root  system  is  considerably  below  the  surface. 
Cutting  at  such  intervals  as  to  sever  the  roots  for  one-half  to  two- 
thirds  of  the  distance  around  the  tree  will  induce  blossoming  under 
normal  conditions  without  seriously  checking  the  growth  or  thrift  of 
the  tree." 


THE   MANGO  107 

Experience  in  Florida  has  shown  that  girdling,  to  be  effective, 
must  be  done  in  late  summer.  No  one  yet  has  had  sufficient 
experience  to  recommend  it  as  an  orchard  practice.  Like 
root-pruning,  the  use  of  salt,  and  several  other  unusual  prac- 
tices, it  may  prove  of  decided  value  when  its  proper  method  of 
use  has  been  determined.  Every  grower  should  conduct  a 
few  carefully  arranged  experiments  along  such  lines  as  these, 
even  though  on  a  limited  scale. 

In  India,  the  only  pruning  usually  given  the  mango  consists 
in  cutting  out  dead  wood.  Since  the  fruit  is  produced  at  the 
ends  of  the  branchlets,  general  pruning  of  the  top  cannot  be 
practiced  as  with  northern  fruits.  In  Florida,  however, 
several  growers  have  found  it  desirable  to  prune  out  a  certain 
number  of  branches  from  the  center  of  the  tree,  so  as  to  keep 
the  crown  open  and  admit  light  and  air. 

PROPAGATION 

Like  many  other  fruit-trees,  the  mango  has  been  propagated 
in  the  tropics  principally  by  seed.  In  some  instances  seedling 
trees  produce  good  fruits;  this  is  particularly  true  of  certain 
races,  such  as  the  Manila  or  Philippine.  But  in  order  to 
insure  early  bearing,  productiveness,  and  uniformity  of  fruit, 
it  is  necessary  to  use  vegetative  means  of  propagation.  In- 
arching, budding,  and  grafting  are  the  methods  most  successfully 
employed. 

The  seedling  races  of  the  tropics  are,  so  far  as  has  been 
observed,  polyembryonic  in  character.  Three  to  ten  plants 
commonly  grow  from  a  single  seed.  Since  these  develop 
vegetatively  from  the  seed  tissues,  they  are  not  the  product  of 
sexual  reproduction,  but  may  be  compared  to  buds  or  cions 
from  the  parent  tree.  Most  of  the  grafted  Indian  varieties,  on 
the  other  hand,  have  lost  this  characteristic.  When  their 
seeds  are  planted  a  single  young  tree  develops,  and  this  is 


108     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

found  to  differ  from  its  parent  much  as  does  a  seedling  avocado 
or  a  seedling  peach.  Usually  the  fruit  is  inferior,  and  the  tree 
may  be  quite  different  in  its  bearing  habits. 

Dr.  Bonavia,  a  medical  officer  in  British  India  who  did  much 
to  stimulate  interest  in  mango  culture,  at  one  time  took  up 
the  question  of  seedling  mangos  and  wrote  several  articles 
advocating  their  wholesale  planting.  He  argued  that  not  only 
would  many  new  varieties,  some  of  them  superior  in  quality,  be 
obtained  in  this  way,  but  also  earlier  and  later  fruiting  kinds, 
and  perhaps  some  suited  to  colder  climates. 

Just  what  percentage  of  seedling  mangos  will  produce  good 
fruit  depends  largely  on  their  parentage.  Seedlings  of  the  fibrous 
mangos  of  the  West  Indies  are  invariably  poor,  while  those 
from  budded  trees  of  such  varieties  as  Alphonse  and  Pairi, 
although  in  most  instances  inferior  or  rarely  equal  or  superior 
to  the  parent,  are  practically  never  so  poor  as  the  West  Indian 
seedlings.  At  the  Saharanpur  Botanic  Gardens,  in  northern 
India,  some  experiments  were  conducted  between  1881  and 
1893  to  determine  the  average  character  of  seedlings  from  stand- 
ard grafted  varieties.  The  results  led  to  the  conclusion  that 
seedlings  of  the  Bombay  mango  were  fairly  certain  to  produce 
fruit  of  good  quality.  An  experimenter  in  Queensland,  at  about 
the  same  time,  reported  having  grown  seedlings  of  Alphonse  to 
the  fourth  generation,  all  of  which  came  true  to  the  parent  type. 

Experience  in  the  United  States  has  shown,  however,  that 
degeneration  is  common.  A  number  of  seedlings  of  Mulgoba 
have  been  grown  in  Florida,  but  very  few  have  proved  of  good 
quality.  There  is  a  tendency  for  the  fruits  to  be  more  fibrous 
than  those  of  the  parent.  The  whole  question  is  probably  one 
of  embryogeny.  When  monoembryonic  seeds  are  planted, 
the  fruit  is  likely  to  be  inferior  to  that  of  the  parent,  if  the 
latter  was  a  choice  variety;  with  poly  embryonic  seeds,  even 
though  of  fine  sorts  like  the  Manila,  the  trees  produce  fruit 
closely  resembling  that  of  the  parent. 


THE   MANGO  109 

The  embryogeny  of  the  mango  cannot  be  discussed  at  great 
length  here.  It  is  not  yet  thoroughly  understood,  although  it 
has  been  studied  by  several  investigators.  The  most  recent 
account  and  the  only  one  which  has  been  undertaken  with  the 
horticultural  problems  in  mind,  is  that  of  John  Belling,  pub- 
lished in  the  Report  of  the  Florida  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  for  1908.  Belling  says : 

"In  the  immature  seed  of  the  sweet  orange  E.  Strasburger 
has  shown  by  the  microscope,  and  Webber  and  Swingle  have 
proved  by  their  hybridizing  experiments  that  besides  the  ordi- 
nary embryo  which  is  the  product  of  fertilization,  the  other 
embryos  present  in  the  young  or  mature  seeds  arise  by  the  out- 
growth of  nucellar  cells  into  the  apical  part  of  the  embryo-sac. 
The  first-mentioned  embryo,  when  present,  is  liable  to  any 
variation  which  is  connected  with  sexual  multiplication,  —  the 
vicinism  of  H.  De  Vries.  The  remaining  embryos,  on  the  other 
hand,  presumably  resemble  buds  from  the  tree  which  bears 
the  orange  in  whose  seed  they  grow,  in  that  they  inherit  its 
qualities  with  only  a  minor  degree  of  variation." 

The  behavior  of  the  mango  has  suggested  a  similar  state  of 
affairs.  Belling  goes  on  to  quote  Strasburger's  account  of  the 
embryogeny  of  the  mango,  and  describes  his  own  investigations  : 

"Even  in  the  unopened  flower  bud  the  nucellar  cells  at  the 
apex  of  the  embryo  sac  which  are  separated  from  the  sac  only 
by  a  layer  of  flattened  cells,  are  swollen  with  protoplasm.  In 
older  fruits  it  may  be  noticed  that  the  cells  around  the  apical 
region  of  the  sac  except  on  the  side  near  the  raphe  are  also 
swollen.  The  adventitious  embryos  arise  from  these  swollen 
cells,  which  in  fruits  7  mm.  long  with  ovules  3  mm.  long  divide 
up,  sometimes  forming  the  rudiments  of  a  dozen  or  more  em- 
bryos, but  often  fewer.  The  nucleated  protoplasm  on  the 
embryo-sac  wall  is  undivided  into  cells,  and  is  thick  opposite 
the  places  where  embryo  formation  is  going  on." 

Belling  worked  with  fruits  of  the  No.  11  mango,  seedling 


110     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 


race  of  Florida  identical  with  the  common  mango  of  the  West 
Indies,  Mexico,  and  Central  America.  He  was  not  able  to 
determine  whether  the  egg-cell  develops  into  an  embryo,  or 

whether  all  of  the  em- 
bryos are  adventitious, 
—  the  egg-cell  being 
crowded  out  or  de- 
stroyed in  some  other 
way.  If  the  fertilized 
egg-cell  develops  and  is 
represented  in  the  ma- 
ture seed,  the  plant 
arising  from  it  should 
exhibit  variation;  but 
the  seedling  races  are 
so  constant  that  it 
seems  probable  that 
the  egg-cell  is  lost  at 
some  stage  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  fruit, 
and  that  all  of  the  em- 
bryos are  normally 
adventitious.  There 
is  as  yet  no  proof, 
however,  that  fruits 
will  develop  on  this  or 
other  mangos  unless 
the  flowers  are  pol- 
linated. The  subject 
is  an  important  one 
and  will  repay  further  investigation. 

It  has  been  observed  in  Florida  that  monoembryonic  grafted 
varieties,  such  as  Mulgoba,  will,  when  grown  from  seed,  some- 
times revert  to  polyembryony  in  the  first  generation  (Fig.  10). 


FIG.  10.  Seedlings  of  grafted  Indian  mangos 
usually  do  not  produce  fruit  exactly  like  the 
parent.  Each  of  the  fruits  here  shown  repre- 
sents a  tree  grown  from  a  seed  of  the  Mulgoba 
mango.  The  variations  in  size  and  shape  of 
fruit,  and  in  the  amount  of  fiber  around  the  seed, 
are  noteworthy.  (X  |) 


THE   MANGO  111 

G.  L.  Chauveaud1  has  advanced  the  theory  that  polyembryony 
is  a  more  primitive  state  than  monoembryony,  which  would 
seem  to  be  borne  out  by  this  observation ;  for  it  must  be  true 
that  the  choice  mangos  of  India  which  have  been  propagated 
by  grafting  for  centuries  are  less  primitive  in  character  than  the 
semi-wild  seedling  races. 

Inarching  is  an  ancient  method  of  vegetative  propagation. 
While  several  writers  have  attempted  to  show  that  it  was  not 
known  in  India  previous  to  the  arrival  of  Europeans,  and  that 
the  Jesuits  at  Goa  were  the  first  to  apply  it  to  the  mango,  others 
have  held  the  belief,  based  on  researches  in  the  literature  of 
ancient  India,  that  the  Hindus  propagated  their  choice  mangos 
by  inarching  for  centuries  before  any  Europeans  visited  the 
country. 

This  method  of  propagation  is  still  preferred  to  all  others 
in  India  and  a  few  other  countries.  In  the  United  States  it 
has  been  superseded  by  budding. 

For  the  production  of  stock  plants  on  which  to  bud  or  graft 
choice  varieties,  seeds  of  any  of  the  common  mangos  are  used. 
No  preference  for  any  particular  race  has  yet  been  established. 
It  is  reasonable  to  believe,  however,  that  there  may  be  important 
differences  among  seedling  races  in  vigor  of  growth  and  perhaps 
in  their  effect  on  the  productiveness  and  other  characteristics  of 
the  cion.  The  subject  has  never  been  investigated  and  deserves 
attention. 

Seeds  are  planted,  after  having  the  husk  removed,  in  five-  or 
six-inch  pots  of  light  soil  or  in  nursery  rows  in  the  open  ground. 
They  are  covered  with  1  inch  or  1 J  inches  of  soil.  In  warm 
weather  they  will  germinate  within  two  weeks,  and  must  be 
watched  to  prevent  the  development  of  more  than  one  shoot. 
Polyembryonic  mangos  will  send  up  several;  all  but  the 
strongest  one  should  be  destroyed.  If  grown  in  pots  and 
intended  for  budding,  the  young  plants  may  be  set  out  in  the 
1  Compt.  Rend.  114,  1892. 


112     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

field  in  nursery  rows  when  they  are  a  foot  high.  If  destined 
for  inarching  they  must  be  kept  in  pots. 

Inarching  is  more  successful  in  the  hands  of  the  tyro  than 
budding  or  crown-grafting.  It  can  be  recommended  when  only 
a  few  plants  are  desired,  and  when  the  tree  to  be  propagated  is 
in  a  convenient  situation.  G.  Marshall  Woodrow  thus  de- 
scribes inarching  as  it  is  done  in  India.  A  slice  is  cut  from  the 
side  of  a  small  branch  on  the  tree  it  is  desired  to  propagate,  and 
a  slice  of  similar  size  —  2  to  4  inches  long  and  deep  enough  to 
expose  the  cambium  —  is  cut  from  the  stem  of  a  young  seedling 
supported  at  a  convenient  height  upon  a  light  framework  of 
poles.  The  two  cut  surfaces  are  bound  together  with  a  strip  of 
fiber  from  the  stem  of  the  banana,  or  with  some  other  soft 
bandage.  Well-kneaded  clay  is  then  plastered  over  the  graft 
to  keep  out  air  and  water.  The  soil  in  the  pot  must  be  kept 
moist.  After  six  to  eight  weeks  the  cut  surfaces  will  have 
united. 

Inarching  may  be  done  at  any  time  in  strictly  tropical 
climates,  but  the  best  time  in  the  hot  parts  of  India  is  the  cool 
season.  Toward  the  northern  limits  of  mango  cultivation  the 
middle  of  the  rainy  season  is  better. 

The  graft  is  sometimes  allowed  to  remain  attached  to  the 
parent  tree  for  too  long  a  time,  with  the  result  that  swellings, 
due  to  the  constriction  of  the  bandages,  occur  at  the  point  of 
union.  It  is  better  to  remove  the  grafted  plant  fairly  early 
and  place  it  in  the  shade  for  a  few  weeks.  It  is  detached  from 
the  parent  tree  by  severing  the  branch  which  has  been  inarched 
to  the  seedling  at  a  point  just  below  the  point  of  union  with  the 
latter.  This  leaves  the  young  branch  from  the  tree  it  was 
desired  to  propagate  growing  upon  a  seedling ;  the  top  of  the 
latter  is  cut  out,  and  the  branch  from  the  old  tree  takes  its 
place,  ultimately  forming  the  crown  of  the  mature  tree. 

The  age  of  the  stock  is  not  important.  Plants  three  weeks 
to  three  years  old  have  been  used  with  success.  If  kept  in  pots 


THE   MANGO 


113 


too  long,  however,  the  plants  become  pot-bound  and  lose  their 
vigor ;  hence  it  is  desirable  to  graft  them  when  young  and  get 
them  into  the  open  ground  as  soon  as  possible.  Seeds  planted 
in  June  and  July  make  strong  plants  ready  for  inarching  by 
November.  December 
and  January  are  good 
months  in  which  to  in- 
arch, and  such  plants 
should  be  ready  to  set 
out  in  the  field  by  the 
following  July. 

Inarching,  as  practiced 
in  other  countries,  differs 
in  no  essentials  from  the 
Indian  method  above 
described. 

Shield-budding  is  the 
method  employed  by 
nurserymen  in  Florida. 
In  the  hands  of  a  skillful 
propagator  who  has  made 
a  careful  study  of  this 
method,  it  gives  excellent 
results.  In  inexperi- 
enced hands  it  usually 
proves  altogether  unsat- 
isfactory. Particularly 
is  experience  required  to 
enable  the  propagator  to 
recognize  the  proper  type  of  bud  wood,  and  to  know  when  the 
stock  plants  are  in  the  proper  state  of  vegetative  activity.  By 
careful  experimenting  with  stock  plants  and  budwood  of 
different  conditions  of  growth  throughout  a  season  or  two,  a 
good  propagator  should  be  able  to  bud  mangos  successfully; 


FIG.  11.  Shield-budding  the  mango.  On 
the  left,  a  bud  properly  inserted ;  next,  an 
inserted  bud  wrapped  with  a  strip  of  waxed 
cloth ;  above  the  knife-point,  a  properly  cut 
bud  ;  and  on  the  right,  budwood  of  desirable 
character. 


114    MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

but  comparatively  few  men  have  yet  devoted  the  requisite 
time  and  study  to  the  subject.  Thus  there  are  at  present  only 
a  few  propagators  in  the  United  States  who  can  produce 
budded  mango  trees  economically  and  in  quantity. 

Various  methods  of  budding,  beginning  with  the  patch-bud, 
have  been  tried  at  different  times,  but  shield-budding  (Fig.  11) 
is  the  only  one  which  has  proved  altogether  satisfactory  for 
nursery  purposes.  The  method  is  the  same  as  that  used  with 
citrus  fruits  and  the  avocado.  Having  been  less  extensively 
practiced,  however,  mango  budding  is  less  thoroughly  under- 
stood, and  it  is  not  a  simple  matter  to  judge  the  condition  of 
the  stock  plants  and  the  budwood  without  experience. 

The  best  season  for  budding  the  mango  in  Florida  is  generally 
considered  to  be  May  and  June,  but  the  work  is  done  success- 
fully all  through  the  summer.  It  is  necessary  to  bud  in  warm 
weather,  when  the  stock  plants  are  in  active  growth. 

When  seedlings  have  attained  the  diameter  of  a  lead-pencil 
they  can  be  budded,  although  they  are  commonly  allowed  to 
grow  a  little  larger  than  this.  The  proper  time  for  inserting 
the  buds  is  when  the  plants  are  coming  into  flush,  i.e.,  commenc- 
ing to  push  out  wine-colored  new  growth.  When  they  are  in 
this  stage,  the  bark  separates  readily  from  the  wood;  after 
the  new  growth  has  developed  further  and  is  beginning  to 
lose  its  reddish  color,  the  bark  does  not  separate  so  easily  and 
budding  is  less  successful. 

The  budwood  should  be  taken  from  the  ends  of  young 
branches,  but  usually  not  from  the  ultimate  or  last  growth ;  the 
two  preceding  growths  are  better.  It  is  considered  important 
that  budwood  and  stock  plant  be  closely  similar,  in  so  far  as 
size  and  maturity  of  wood  are  concerned.  If  possible,  branch- 
lets  from  which  the  leaves  have  fallen  should  be  chosen.  In 
any  event,  the  budwood  should  be  fairly  well  ripened,  and  the 
end  of  the  branchlet  from  which  it  is  taken  should  not  be  in 
active  growth. 


THE   MANGO  115 

The  incision  is  made  in  the  stock  plant  in  the  form  of  a  T 
or  an  inverted  T,  exactly  as  in  budding  avocados  or  citrus  trees. 
The  bud  should  be  rather  large,  preferably  l£  inches  in  length. 
After  it  is  inserted  it  should  be  wrapped  with  waxed  tape  or 
other  suitable  material.  A  formula  for  use  in  preparing  waxed 
tape  will  be  found  under  the  head  of  avocado  budding. 

After  three  to  four  weeks  the  bud  is  examined,  and  if  it 
is  green  and  seems  to  have  formed  a  union,  the  top  of  the 
stock  plant  is  cut  back  several  inches  to  force  the  bud  into 
growth.  A  few  weeks  later  the  top  can  be  cut  back  still 
farther,  and  eventually  it  may  be  trimmed  off  close  above  the 
bud,  —  this  after  the  bud  has  made  a  growth  of  8  or  10  inches. 

J.  E.  Higgins  l  describes  a  method  of  shield-budding  which 
has  been  successful  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  So  far  as  known, 
it  has  not  been  used  on  the  mainland  of  the  United  States. 
Higgins  says,  "Budding  by  this  method  has  been  successfully 
performed  on  stocks  from  an  inch  to  three  inches  in  diameter. 
.  .  .  Wood  of  this  size,  in  seedling  trees,  may  be  from  two  to 
five  years  old.  It  is  essential  that  the  stocks  be  in  thrifty 
condition,  and  still  more  essential  that  they  should  be  in  '  flush.' 
If  not  in  this  condition,  the  bark  will  not  readily  separate 
from  the  stock.  It  has  been  found  that  the  best  time  is  when 
the  terminal  buds  are  just  opening.  .  .  .  The  budwood 
which  has  been  most  successfully  used  is  that  which  has  lost 
most  of  its  leaves  and  is  turning  brown  or  gray  in  color.  Such 
wood  is  usually  about  an  inch  in  diameter.  It  is  not  necessary 
in  this  method  of  budding  that  the  budwood  shall  be  in  a 
flushing  condition,  although  it  may  be  of  advantage  to  have  it 
so.  ...  The  incision  should  be  made  in  the  stock  about  six 
inches  in  length.  .  .  .  The  bud  shield  should  be  three  to  three 
and  a  half  inches  long,  with  the  bud  in  the  center."  After- 
treatment  of  the  buds  is  the  same  as  with  the  Florida  method 
which  has  been  described ;  in  fact  the  Hawaiian  method  seems 
1  Bull.  20,  Hawaii  Agr.  Exp.  Sta. 


116     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 


distinct  only  in  the  size  of  stock  plant  and  budwood,  and  the 
consequent  larger  size  of  the  bud. 

Crown-grafting    (Fig.    12)    is   not   commonly   practiced    in 
Florida,  but  it  has  been  successful  in  Porto  Rico.     It  has  also 

been  employed  with 
good  results  by  H.  A. 
Van  Hermann  of  San- 
tiago de  las  Vegas, 
Cuba,  and  it  is  said  to 
have  proved  satisfac- 
tory in  Hawaii  and  in 
India.  W.  E.  Hess, 
formerly  expert  gar- 
dener of  the  Porto  Rico 
Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  who  has 
had  much  experience 
with  the  method,  says 
that  it  has  proved  more 
successful  in  Porto  Rico 
than  budding,  and  is  at 
the  same  time  superior 
to  inarching  because  of 
the  greater  rapidity 
with  which  trees  can 
be  produced  in  large 
quantities.  As  in  bud- 
ding, success  seems  to 
depend  mainly  on  the 
condition  of  stock  and 
cion  at  the  time  the  graft  is  made.  Provided  the  stock  is  in 
flush,  the  work  can  be  done  at  any  season  of  the  year.  For 
cions,  tip  ends  of  branchlets  are  used.  They  should  be  of 
about  the  diameter  of  a  lead-pencil ;  of  grayish,  fully  matured, 


Fio.  12.  Crown-grafting  the  mango.  On 
the  left,  two  cions  of  proper  size  and  charac- 
ter ;  in  the  center,  a  cion  inserted  and  another 
tied  in  place  ;  and  on  the  right,  the  covering  of 
waxed  paper  which  protects  the  cion  while  it  is 
forming  a  union  with  the  stock. 


THE   MANGO  117 

dormant  wood  ;  and  from  3  to  5  inches  in  length.  A  slanting 
cut  1  to  2  inches  long  is  made  on  one  side,  tapering  to  a  point 
at  the  lower  end  of  the  cion.  The  stock  may  be  of  almost 
any  size.  When  young  plants  are  used  they  are  cut  back  to  1 
foot  above  the  ground,  and  a  slit  about  1  inch  long  is  made 
through  the  bark,  extending  downward  from  the  top  of  the 
stump.  The  cion  is  then  forced  in,  with  its  cut  surface  next  to 
the  wood,  and  is  tied  in  place  with  soft  cotton  string.  No 
wax  is  used.  The  graft  is  inclosed  in  three  or  four  thicknesses 
of  oiled  paper  which  is  wound  around  the  stock  and  tied  firmly 
above  and  below.  This  is  left  on  for  twelve  to  twenty  days, 
when  it  is  untied  at  the  lower  end  to  admit  air.  Fifteen  or 
twenty  days  later  the  cions  will  have  begun  to  grow  and  the 
paper  can  be  removed  entirely. 

This  method  is  applicable  not  only  to  nursery  stock  but  also 
to  old  trees  which  it  is  desired  to  topwork.  In  this  case  about 
half  of  the  main  branches  of  the  tree  should  be  cut  off  at  three 
or  four  feet  from  their  union  with  the  trunk.  It  is  necessary 
to  leave  several  branches  to  keep  the  tree  in  active  growth; 
this  also  has  a  beneficial  effect  on  the  grafts  by  protecting  them 
from  the  sun.  When  the  cions  are  well  established,  these 
branches  may  be  removed  or  they  also  may  be  grafted  if  more 
limbs  are  necessary  to  give  the  tree  a  good  crown.  The  cions 
are  inserted  under  the  bark  at  the  cut  ends  of  the  limbs,  exactly 
as  described  for  young  stocks,  but  larger  cions  may  be  used. 

In  Florida  many  large  trees  have  been  topworked  by  cutting 
off  several  of  the  main  branches,  close  to  their  union  with  the 
trunk,  and  allowing  a  number  of  sprouts  to  come  out.  When 
these  have  reached  the  proper  size,  they  are  budded  in  the 
same  manner  as  seedlings. 

Throughout  the  tropics  there  are  many  thousands  of  seedling 
mango  trees  which  are  producing  fruit  of  inferior  quality. 
By  topworking,  these  trees  could  be  made  to  yield  mangos  of 
the  choicest  Indian  varieties.  The  work  is  not  difficult  and 


118     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

the  value  of  the  tree  is  increased  enormously.  Perhaps  no 
other  field  in  tropical  horticulture  offers  such  opportunities 
for  immediate  results  as  this. 

THE  MANGO  FLOWER  AND  ITS  POLLINATION 

The  scanty  productiveness  of  many  Indian  mangos  has 
been  attributed  by  several  writers  to  defective  pollination. 
A.  C.  Hartless,  superintendent  of  the  Government  Botanical 
Gardens  at  Saharanpur,  India,  discussed  the  matter  at  some 
length  in  the  Agricultural  Journal  of  India,  April,  1914.  The 
writer  has  personally  investigated  the  subject  in  Florida,  and 
the  results  have  been  published  in  Bulletin 
542  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture.  Burns  and  Prayag  have 
written  on  the  structure  and  development 
of  the  mango  flower  in  the  Agricultural 
College  Magazine,  Poona,  India,  March, 

FIG.    13.     A  bisexual     \g\l 

mango  flower.    (X  4)  *  . 

Ihe  mango  is  polygamous  and  produces 

its  flowers  on  terminal  panicles  varying  in  length  from  a  few 
inches  up  to  two  feet.  Each  panicle  carries  from  200  or  300  up 
to  more  than  4000  flowers,  of  which  only  2  or  3  per  cent  are 
perfect  in  some  varieties,  or  as  many  as  60  to  75  per  cent 
in  others.  The  character  of  the  panicle  and  the  number  of 
flowers  produced  upon  it  differs  according  to  the  variety. 

The  individual  flower  (Fig.  13)  is  subsessile,  6  to  8  milli- 
meters in  diameter  when  the  corolla  is  outspread;  the  calyx 
composed  of  five  ovate-lanceolate,  finely  pubescent,  concave 
sepals ;  and  corolla  of  five  elliptic-lanceolate  to  obovate-lance- 
olate  petals,  3  to  4  millimeters  long,  whitish,  with  three  or  four 
fleshy  orange  ridges  toward  the  base,  and  inserted  at  the  base 
of  a  fleshy,  almost  hemispherical  disk,  obscurely  5-lobed  and 
usually  about  2  millimeters  in  diameter.  In  the  perfect  flower 


THE   MANGO  119 

the  disk  is  surmounted  by  a  globose-oblique  ovary  1  millimeter 
broad,  with  a  slender  lateral  style  about  2  millimeters  high. 
To  one  side  and  inserted  upon  the  disk  is  the  single  fertile 
stamen,  composed  of  a  slender  subulate  filament  about  1.5 
millimeters  long,  surmounted  by  an  oval  purplish  red  anther 
0.5  millimeter  long,  which  dehisces  longitudinally.  Occasionally 
two  such  stamens  are  produced.  The  whorl  is  completed  by 
staminodes  of  varying  prominence,  short  and  subulate  in  some 
varieties,  larger  and  capitate  in.  others,  some  even  becoming 
fertile  and  producing  a  few  pollen-grains.  In  the  staminate 
flower  the  ovary  is  wanting. 

Several  writers  have  affirmed  that  the  mango  is  largely  if  not 
solely  wind-pollinated.  It  seems  evident,  however,  that  it 
has  none  of  the  characteristics  of  an  anemophilous  plant,  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  presents  well-developed  adaptations  to 
insect  pollination.  In  anemophilous  or  wind-pollinated  flowers, 
the  pollen  is  usually  abundant  in  order  to  compensate  for  the 
enormous  loss  in  transport;  the  pollen-grains  are  dry  and  in- 
coherent, so  that  they  may  easily  be  carried  by  the  wind ;  and 
the  stigmas  are  commonly  bushy  and  freely  exposed,  so  as  to 
have  every  chance  of  catching  the  floating  grains.  The  mango 
shows  none  of  these  adaptations.  It  produces  comparatively 
few  pollen-grains,  often  not  more  than  200  or  300  to  an  anther. 
These  grains  show  a  decided  tendency  to  cling  together,  espe- 
cially in  damp  weather;  and  even  in  dry  sunny  weather  it  is 
difficult  to  dislodge  them  with  a  strong  draft  of  air.  The  stigma 
is  small  and  not  provided  with  projections  of  any  sort  to  assist 
in  catching  pollen. 

The  production  of  nectar  for  the  attraction  of  insects  also 
indicates  that  the  mango  is  entomophilous.  Observations 
have  shown  that  the  flowers  are  visited  by  numerous  insects 
of  the  orders  Diptera,  Hymenoptera,  Lepidoptera,  and  Coleop- 
tera,  ranking  in  the  order  given  as  to  the  number  of  visits. 
Pollen-grains  have  been  observed  adhering  to  the  bodies  of  many 
species  belonging  to  these  orders. 


120     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

In  spite  of  numerous  insect  visits,  however,  a  large  number 
of  the  stigmas  are  never  pollinated,  and  it  seems  probable  that 
very  little  pollen  is  transferred  from  one  flower  to  another. 
Most  of  the  stigmas  receive  their  pollen  from  the  anther  (rarely 
is  more  than  one  fertile)  of  the  same  flower.  Cross-pollination 
is  in  all  probability  uncommon.  In  damp  cloudy  weather  the 
pollen-grains  swell  and  are  much  more  difficult  to  dislodge  than 
when  the  weather  is  dry  and  sunny.  After  a  heavy  dew  they 
will  be  found  in  this  swollen  condition,  but  when  the  sun  comes 
out  they  return  to  their  normal  dry  form.  Protection  of  the 
flowers  from  dew  and  rain  by  means  of  a  canvas  shelter  did  not 
increase  the  production  of  fruit  in  the  case  of  an  experiment 
carried  out  in  Florida. 

Sometimes  there  is  considerable  differentiation  in  the  size 
of  the  pollen-grains.  In  most  varieties  the  larger  number, 
however,  are  uniform  in  shape  and  size,  plump  and  apparently 
perfect.  They  can  be  germinated  in  sugar  solution  of  the  proper 
density,  and  there  is  nothing  to  suggest  that  impotency  is 
common. 

From  the  fact  that  pollination  ordinarily  is  scanty,  it  might 
be  assumed  that  productiveness  could  be  increased  by  making 
it  more  abundant.  This  has  not,  however,  been  found  to  be 
the  case,  except  when  the  pollen  was  obtained  from  a  tree  of  a 
different  variety  (cross-pollination) ;  under  these  conditions 
there  was  a  somewhat  better  yield.  The  total  number  of 
flowers  produced  is  so  enormous  that  it  is  of  little  importance 
whether  all  are  pollinated  or  not.  Seedling  mangos,  which  are 
not  pollinated  more  abundantly  than  budded  varieties,  nor 
furnished  with  a  greater  number  of  anthers,  nor,  so  far  as  can 
be  ascertained,  with  pollen  of  greater  potency,  often  set  many 
more  fruits  than  they  can  carry  to  maturity.  This  has  been 
noted  also  with  several  grafted  kinds,  such  as  Bennett  and 
Cambodiana. 

Sometimes  the  entire  tree  comes  into  bloom  at  one  time, 


THE   MANGO  121 

covering  itself  with  flowers;  again,  one  side  of  the  tree  may 
flower,  while  the  other  shows  no  buds;  or  the  flowering  may 
be  confined  to  a  small  section  of  the  tree,  probably  the  branch- 
lets  arising  from  one  large  limb.  This  behavior  of  the  mango 
corresponds  to  the  growth  habit  of  the  tree  which  is  mentioned 
but  not  explained  by  A.  F.  W.  Schimper.1  When  one  side  of 
the  tree  flowers  independently,  it  might  be  expected  that  the 
remainder  would  flower  at  another  time,  but  this  is  not  always 
the  case. 

Some  varieties  develop  all  their  flowers  within  ten  days  after 
the  first  buds  open ;  others,  such  as  Sandersha  and  Julie,  push 
out  flower-panicles  during  a  period  of  several  weeks,  or  even 
months ;  thus,  in  1915  there  was  not  a  single  day  between  the 
middle  of  January  and  the  latter  part  of  May  on  which  flowers 
could  not  be  found  on  the  old  Sandersha  tree  in  the  Plant 
Introduction  Garden  at  Miami,  Florida.  This  feature  is  of 
importance  in  that  it  gives  the  tree  a  greater  opportunity  to 
set  fruit.  Often  the  attacks  of  the  anthracnose  fungus  are 
severe  when  the  tree  is  in  bloom,  and  the  entire  crop  of  flowers 
is  destroyed.  In  some  varieties  this  means  a  crop  failure,  since 
the  tree  will  not  produce  any  more  flowers  that  season ;  but 
in  the  Sandersha  (if  early  in  the  season)  it  need  mean  only  the 
loss  of  the  flowers  which  were  present  at  that  particular  time. 
Those  developed  later  might  enjoy  more  favorable  weather, 
with  consequent  freedom  from  the  anthracnose  peril,  and  a 
crop  of  fruit  would  result.  Anthracnose,  one  of  the  greatest 
enemies  of  the  mango,  is  discussed  under  the  heading  pests 
and  diseases. 

Some  varieties  which  fruit  heavily  are  characterized  by  a 
high  percentage  of  perfect  flowers.  Others  which  are  known  to 
be  unusually  regular  in  fruiting,  although  they  may  not  produce 
such  heavy  crops,  have  relatively  few  perfect  flowers.  The 
Philippine  race  of  seedlings,  which  sometimes  bears  heavily, 
1  Plant  Geography. 


122     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

commonly  has  more  perfect  than  staminate  flowers.  Most  of 
the  Indian  varieties  have  fewer  perfect  flowers  than  the  seedling 
races. 

The  experiments  conducted  in  Florida  indicate  that  the  scanty 
fruiting  of  many  varieties  is  not  due  to  any  morphological  defect 
in  the  pollen  or  to  defects  in  the  mechanism  of  pollination. 
While  such  factors  as  lack  of  pollinating  insects  and  loss  of 
pollen  through  rains  or  moist  weather  probably  lessen  the 
production  of  fruit  in  some  seasons,  from  a  practical  standpoint 
the  question  of  pollination  seems  relatively  unimportant. 
The  problem  is  more  probably  a  physiological  one,  connected 
with  nutritional  conditions  as  influenced  by  changes  in  soil- 
moisture  and  food-supply,  principally  the  former.  Suggestions 
are  given  under  the  heading  culture  for  encouraging  the 
formation  of  fruit-buds  on  soils  or  under  climatic  conditions 
which  normally  tend  to  produce  vegetative  growth  to  the 
detriment  of  reproduction. 

THE  CROP 

In  the  tropics  seedling  mangos  usually  come  into  bearing 
four  to  six  years  from  the  time  of  planting.  More  time  than 
this  may  be  required  in  some  instances.  Certain  races  are 
more  precocious  than  others.  In  Florida,  growth  is  less  rapid 
than  in  the  tropics  and  fruiting  is  delayed  in  consequence. 

Budded  trees  should  fruit  at  an  earlier  age  than  seedlings. 
As  regards  a  given  variety  or  race,  they  usually  do  so;  but 
grafted  or  budded  trees  of  some  varieties  do  not  fruit  so  early  as 
seedlings  of  certain  races.  In  Florida,  dwarf  kinds  such  as 
D'Or  and  Julie  sometimes  fruit  the  second  year  after  planting. 
Haden  has  produced  good  crops  four  years  from  planting. 
Mulgoba  should  fruit  at  four  to  six  years  of  age.  Malda  and 
several  other  sorts  have  been  grown  in  Florida  ten  years  or 
more  without  having  fruited  as  yet.  At  Saharanpur,  India, 


THE   MANGO 


123 


A.  C.  Hartless  has  found  that  it  commonly  requires  four  to  nine 
years  for  inarched  trees  to  come  into  bearing. 

The  yield  of  many  budded  varieties  is  uncertain,  while  of 
many  seedling  races  it  is  uniformly  heavy.  Seedling  trees  in 
Cuba  and  other  parts  of  tropical  America  often  carry  as  much 
fruit  as  the  branches  will  support.  Budded  mangos  sometimes 
bear  heavily  one  season  and  nothing  the  next.  The  following  ta- 
ble prepared  by  A.  C.  Hartless  shows  the  behavior  of  the  orchard 
of  grafted  trees  in  the  Botanical  Garden  at  Saharanpur,  India, 
during  a  period  of  twenty-seven  years.  Numerous  varieties  are 
included  ;  and  it  is  probable  that  some  bore  more  regularly  than 
others ;  but  the  table  takes  account  of  the  crop  as  a  whole : 

TABLE  III.    SHOWING  THE  BEARING  OF  MANGO  TREES 


YEAR 

CHARACTER  op 
CROP 

YEAR 

CHARACTER  OF 
CROP 

YEAE 

CHARACTER  OF 
CROP 

1886 

Fair 

1895 

Extremely  light 

1904 

Very  heavy 

1887 

Almost  a  failure 

1896 

Very  light 

1905 

Light 

1888 

Good 

1897 

Fair 

1906 

Good 

1889 

Complete  failure 

1898 

Excellent 

1907 

Very  light 

1890 

Light 

1899 

Fair 

1908 

Good 

1891 

Poorest  on  record 

1900 

Below  average 

1909 

Very  poor 

1892 

Heavy 

1901 

Very  light 

1910 

Very  poor 

1893 

Heavy 

1902 

Fair 

1911 

Poor 

1894 

Very  light 

1903 

Very  light 

1912 

Excellent 

Records  from  Lucknow,  India,  show  that  during  a  period  of 
thirty  years  there  were  nineteen  in  which  the  crop  was  poor, 
six  in  which  it  was  fair,  and  five  in  which  it  was  heavy.  At 
Nagpur  during  a  period  of  nine  years  there  were  six  in  which 
the  crop  was  poor  and  three  in  which  it  was  good. 

In  Florida  Mulgoba  has,  up  to  the  present,  produced  a  good 
crop  about  once  in  four  years. 

These  figures  would  be  discouraging,  were  it  not  for  the 


124     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

certainty  that  much  can  be  done  to  increase  the  likelihood  of 
good  crops  by  attending  to  cultural  details  and  by  planting 
varieties  known  to  be  productive.  The  extensive  tests  which 
have  been  made  in  Florida  have  brought  to  light  a  number 
of  choice  sorts  which  combine  excellent  quality  of  fruit  with  a 
degree  of  productiveness  far  above  the  average.  Amini,  for 
example,  has  borne  much  more  regularly  than  Mulgoba.  In 
Porto  Rico  also  it  has  done  remarkably  well.  Sandersha  has 
produced  a  fair  crop  nearly  every  year.  Cambodiana  has  also 
given  a  good  account  of  itself.  Pairi  has  fruited  much  more 
regularly  than  Mulgoba  and  is  almost  as  good  in  quality. 
When  reasonably  productive  kinds  are  planted,  and  their 
cultural  requirements  are  thoroughly  understood,  such  records 
as  that  of  Saharanpur  should  no  longer  be  encountered. 

The  varieties  now  grown  in  Florida  supply  the  market  with 
ripe  fruit  from  July  to  October.  The  main  season  is  August 
and  September.  Cambodiana  is  one  of  the  earliest  varieties. 
Sandersha  is  probably  the  latest.  A  few  of  its  fruits  ripen  as 
late  as  the  first  half  of  October.  In  India  a  kind  known  as 
Baramassia  (more  likely  a  number  of  different  mangos  known 
under  the  same  name)  is  said  to  mature  fruits  throughout  most 
of  the  year,  doing  this  by  producing  two  or  three  light  crops. 
It  is  probable,  however,  that  many  statements  regarding  this 
variety  are  exaggerated,  for  it  seems  to  be  known  much  better 
by  reputation  than  by  the  personal  experience  of  those  who 
describe  it.  A  variety  in  northern  India,  Bhaduria,  ripens 
later  than  most  others.  In  this  part  of  India  the  mango  season 
extends  from  May  to  October. 

The  Indian  method  of  picking  and  ripening  the  mango,  and 
the  type  of  carrier  employed  in  shipping  the  fruit,  are  described 
by  G.  Marshall  Woodrow.  He  says  : 

"  The  mango  is  gathered  as  soon  as  the  fruit  comes  away  freely  in 
the  hand.  .  .  .  When  gathered  too  early  the  sap  exudes  freely,  does 
not  agglutinate,  and  the  fruit  shrivels.  The  collection  of  the  fruit 


THE   MANGO  125 

should  be  by  hand  as  far  as  practicable ;  a  bag-net  with  the  mouth 
distended  by  a  circle  of  cane,  and  suspended  by  a  strap  from  the 
shoulder,  leaves  both  hands  free  to  gather.  None  must  be  allowed 
to  fall  to  the  ground ;  all  should  be  handled  as  gently  as  eggs  because 
a  slight  bruise  brings  on  decay  quickly.  To  bring  down  the  higher 
fruit  a  bag-net  15  inches  in  depth,  the  mouth  distended  by  a  circle 
of  cane,  traversed  by  and  bound  to  a  light  bamboo  and  having  a  piece 
of  hoop  iron  bound  across  the  mouth  of  the  bag  at  right  angles  to  the 
bamboo  forms  an  efficient  apparatus  for  the  purpose ;  the  hoop  iron 
breaks  the  stalk,  and  the  fruit  falls  into  the  net  and  is  gently  lowered 
to  the  ready  baskets.  It  is  then  carried  to  the  fruit  room  and  arranged 
in  single  layers,  with  soft  dry  grass  above  and  below.  The  room  must 
be  well  ventilated  and  cool,  yet  not  subject  to  decided  changes  of  tem- 
perature; a  moist  atmosphere  hastens  ripening  and  decay,  coolness 
and  fresh  air  retard  destructive  changes. 

"  For  transport,  small  baskets  fit  to  contain  a  dozen  mangos  should 
be  provided,  each  with  a  lid  and  some  hay  for  packing  at  top  and 
bottom.  Each  basket  should  be  filled  so  as  to  prevent  motion  of  the 
fruit,  choice  specimens  being  separately  wrapped  in  soft  paper. 
Twelve  small  baskets  may  be  packed  firmly  into  one  large  one,  and 
the  load  becomes  sufficient  for  a  man  to  carry  when  the  basket  has 
been  raised  on  to  his  head.  By  this  means  bruised  and  damaged  fruit 
is  reduced  to  the  lowest  terms,  and  repacking  for  distribution  is 
avoided." 

A.  C.  Hartless  of  Saharanpur  says :  "  It  is  a  common  practice 
here  to  ripen  the  fruit  artificially.  This  is  done  to  save  the 
expense  of  watching  and  protecting  from  predatory  animals 
and  birds.  When  the  fruits  attain  the  desired  size  they  are 
taken  off  and  packed  in  straw  in  closed  boxes  where  they  will 
ripen.  The  taste  may  in  this  way  differ  slightly  from  those 
ripened  on  the  tree,  but  it  is  not  uncommon  for  the  fruits  on 
the  same  tree  to  differ  materially  in  taste."  C.  Maries  reports 
that  the  variety  Mohur  Thakur  is  ripened  on  the  tree  at  Dar- 
bhanga,  small  bamboo  baskets  being  placed  around  the  fruits  to 
keep  flies  and  moths  from  eating  them.  When  the  basket 
falls  to  the  ground  the  fruit  is  ripe  and  ready  for  eating. 

Some  varieties  will  keep  much  longer  after  picking  than 
others.  William  Burns,1  in  his  article  on  the  Pairi  mango, 

1  Agricultural  Journal  of  India,  p.  27,  1911. 


126     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 


says  that  Alphonse  can  be  kept  two  months,  if  properly  stored. 
Pairi,  on  the  other  hand,  will  only  remain  in  good  condition 
for  eight  days.  C.  F.  Kinman  points  out  that  the  Indian 
mangos  have  proved  to  be  much  better  keepers  in  Porto  Rico 
than  the  native  seedlings.  The  flavor  and  keeping  quality  of  a 
fruit  depend,  of  course,  largely  on  the  degree  of  maturity  at 
which  it  is  picked.  For  local  use  the.  fruit,  with  the  exception 
of  Sandersha,  should  be  allowed  to  color  fully  and  to  soften 
slightly  on  the  tree,  while  for  shipping  to  market  it  must  be 
picked  before  it  is  fully  colored.  Some  varieties,  such  as  Amini, 

develop  an  objectionable 
flavor  if  left  on  the  tree 
until  fully  ripe. 

From  Florida  the  In- 
dian varieties  have  been 
shipped  successfully  to 
northern  markets  (Fig. 
14).  The  fruit  is  picked 
when  it  has  begun  to 
acquire  color,  but  before 
it  has  softened  in  the 
slightest  degree.  It  is 
then  wrapped  in  tissue- 
paper  of  the  kind  used  in  shipping  citrus  fruits,  and  is  packed 
in  tomato  baskets.  Mangos  of  moderate  size,  such  as  Mulgoba, 
will  pack  twelve  to  a  basket.  A  small  amount  of  excelsior  is 
used  above  and  below  them.  Six  of  these  baskets  are  placed  in 
a  crate  for  shipment.  Sometimes  tomato  baskets  are  dispensed 
with  and  the  fruit  is  packed  in  a  crate  with  a  partition  in  the 
center,  using  an  abundance  of  excelsior  between  each  tier  or 
layer. 

Numerous  storage  tests  have  been  made  at  the  Porto  Rico 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station  (Bull.  24).  Mangos  of 
different  varieties  were  placed  in  (a)  warm  storage  at  80  to 


FIG.  14.     Florida-grown   mangos  packed 
shipment. 


for 


THE  MANGO  127 

83°  F.,  and  (b)  cold  storage  at  40  to  47°  F.    Some  of  the 
results  were  as  follows : 

Amini.  —  Fruits  which  were  ready  for  eating  when  taken  from  the 
tree  remained  in  the  warm  room  in  good  condition  about  four  days. 
Fruits  which  were  well  colored  but  had  not  softened  on  the  tree  began 
to  decay  in  seven  to  ten  days.  All  of  these  fruits  developed  attrac- 
tive color  in  storage.  In  the  cool  room  fruits  which  were  ready  for 
eating  when  removed  from  the  tree  remained  in  good  condition  eleven 
to  eighteen  days.  Those  which  were  mature  when  taken  from  the 
tree,  but  which  had  not  commenced  to  soften,  were  ready  for  eating 
twenty  days  after  being  put  in  storage,  and  did  not  show  signs  of  decay 
until  six  days  later. 

Cambodiana.  —  Fruits  which  had  fallen  from  the  tree  due  to  ripe- 
ness remained  in  the  warm  room  five  days  in  good  condition.  Those 
which  were  picked  when  soft  on  one  side  remained  six  to  eight  days 
without  decaying  perceptibly.  Those  picked  when  about  half  colored 
remained  in  good  condition  eight  days  only.  Fruits  ripened  on  the 
tree  and  placed  in  the  cool  room  kept  only  five  or  six  days.  Those 
which  had  colored  on  the  tree  but  had  not  begun  to  soften  were  ripe 
nineteen  days  after  being  placed  in  the  cool  room,  and  remained  in 
good  condition  until  the  twenty-sixth  day;  they  were  not  so  good, 
however,  as  those  ripened  on  the  tree. 

Sander  ska.  —  Fruits  picked  just  before  they  began  to  soften  and 
placed  in  the  warm  room  were  ready  for  eating  nine  days  later,  and 
remained  in  good  condition  three  days.  Fruits  picked  similarly 
mature  and  placed  in  the  cool  room  remained  in  good  condition  for 
nearly  five  weeks,  at  the  end  of  which  time  the  flavor  was  better  than 
that  of  tree-ripened  specimens. 

"Fancy"  mangos  have  been  shipped  successfully  from  India 
to  London,  from  Jamaica  to  London,  and  from  the  French 
West  Indies  to  Paris.  When  care  is  used  in  packing  and 
picking  the  fruit,  the  loss  in  transit  is  not  heavy.  The  selection 
of  varieties  having  unusually  good  shipping  qualities  will  do 
more  than  anything  else  to  encourage  export  trade  of  this  sort. 
When  the  fruit  has  only  to  be  shipped  from  Florida  to  New 
York,  keeping  quality  is  not  so  important.  Some  mangos 
which  have  been  placed  on  the  market  have  made  an  unfavor- 
able impression  because  they  were  improperly  ripened.  More 
attention  must  be  given  to  methods  of  ripening  in  the  future, 


128     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

so  that  the  fruit  may  reach  the  consumer  in  full  possession 
of  its  delightful  flavor  and  aroma. 

PESTS  AND  DISEASES 

The  commonest  and  most  troublesome  enemy  of  the  mango 
in  tropical  America  is  anthracnose.  This  is  a  parasitic  fungus 
(Colletotrichum  gloeosporiMes  Penz.)  which  attacks  many 
different  plants,  and  is  particularly  known  as  the  cause  of 
wither-tip  in  citrus  fruits.  It  is  a  species  of  wide  distribution 
which  springs  up  with  no  evident  center  of  infection  whenever 
the  weather  is  warm  and  moist.  On  the  flowers  and  flower- 
stalks  of  the  mango  it  appears  in  the  form  of  small  blackish 
spots.  Often  it  causes  many  of  the  flowers  to  drop.  On  the 
leaves,  spots  and  sometimes  holes  are  produced;  these  begin 
as  minute  black  dots  and  enlarge  until  they  are  about  an  eighth 
of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Young  fruits  may  be  attacked  and 
made  to  drop  in  large  numbers,  while  older  fruits  become  spotted 
with  black  or  streaked,  and  their  keeping  qualities  are  impaired. 

S.  M.  McMurran,  who  studied  anthracnose  control  methods 
in  Florida  and  reported  his  results  in  Bulletin  52  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  says : 

"Spraying  before  the  buds  begin  to  grow  is  of  no  value  so  far  as 
protecting  the  inflorescence,  and  later  the  young  fruit,  is  concerned. 
These  must  be  kept  covered  with  the  fungicide  (Bordeaux  mixture) 
while  growing,  if  fungous  invasion  is  to  be  prevented.  The  difficulty 
of  so  protecting  the  inflorescence  is  at  once  apparent.  Elongations  of 
the  panicle  continue  for  a  period  ranging  from  10  to  15  days.  Those 
which  were  sprayed  every  third  day  were  practically  all  disease-free 
when  the  flowers  began  to  open.  This,  however,  required  four  spray- 
ings in  one  case  and  six  in  the  other.  Those  sprayed  every  fourth 
day  showed  but  little  more  disease  than  those  sprayed  every  third  day, 
but  those  on  which  the  spray  was  applied  at  five  and  six  day  intervals 
had  traces  of  disease,  showing  that  they  were  less  perfectly  protected. 

"  The  spraying  of  the  inflorescence  at  least  three  times,  beginning 
when  the  buds  are  just  swelling  and  repeated  every  fourth  day  until 
the  flowers  open,  will  help  to  prevent  the  dropping  of  fruit  caused  by 
the  disease  on  the  peduncles  and  pedicels. 


THE  MANGO  I2d 

"  The  inflorescence  may  be  kept  in  a  clean  condition  up  to  the  time 
of  blooming;  but,  when  this  takes  place,  immediately  there  are 
hundreds  of  points  which  are  not  covered  by  the  fungicide  and  are 
open  to  infection  .  .  .  spraying  is  of  little  or  no  value  in  controlling 
the  blossom  blight  form  of  the  disease,  and  profitable  sets  of  fruit 
can  be  expected  only  during  seasons  which  are  dry  at  blooming  time, 
unless  varieties  which  are  resistant  to  the  disease  are  developed  and 
cultivated." 

This  disease  is  a  serious  obstacle  to  the  production  of  market- 
able mangos  in  the  West  Indies.  J.  B.  Rorer,1  who  conducted 
spraying  experiments  in  Trinidad,  found,  however,  that  "All 
of  the  sprayed  trees  set  more  fruit  than  the  control  trees,  and 
the  greater  part  of  the  fruit  ripened  without  infection,  while 
the  fruit  on  unsprayed  trees  was  for  the  greater  part  spotted 
or  tear-streaked.  The  fruit  from  sprayed  trees  matured  a 
little  later  than  that  from  the  unsprayed  and  was  somewhat 
larger  in  size.  The  foliage  of  sprayed  trees  was  much  heavier 
than  that  of  the  unsprayed."  If  fruit  is  not  sprayed  to  keep  it 
clean  while  it  is  developing,  it  not  only  is  less  attractive  when 
placed  on  the  market,  but  is  subject  to  decay. 

Anthracnose  does  not  appear  to  be  mentioned  by  Indian 
writers  on  mango  culture.  It  is  known,  however,  to  be  serious 
in  Hawaii  as  well  as  in  tropical  America.  Bordeaux  mixture 
used  in  its  control  can  be  made  according  either  to  the  4-6-50 
or  the  5-5-50  formula,  using  a  small  amount  of  whale-oil  soap 
to  make  it  adhere  more  tenaciously  to  the  foliage. 

Ethel  M.  Doidge,  in  the  Annals  of  Applied  Biology  (1915) 
describes  a  disfiguring  and  rotting  disease  of  mangos  which 
occurs  in  South  Africa.  It  is  caused  by  Bacillus  mangifem, 
an  organism  which  is  carried  by  water  or  may  be  transported 
from  tree  to  tree  by  the  wind.  Woody  tissues  are  not  affected, 
but  small  angular  water-soaked  areas  appear  on  leaves,  longi- 
tudinal cracks  are  produced  on  petioles,  and  discolored  spots 
on  twigs  and  branches ;  while  on  the  fruit  the  first  sign  of  the 
disease  is  a  small  discolored  spot.  This  spreads,  becoming 
1  Trinidad  and  Tobago  Bull.  5,  1915. 


130     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

intersected  with  cracks,  and  may  extend  some  distance  into  the 
flesh.  No  means  of  controlling  this  bacterial  disease  has  yet 
been  discovered. 

Of  the  insects  which  attack  the  mango,  the  fruit-flies  (Trype- 
tidse)  rank  first  in  importance.  Belonging  to  this  family  are 
the  Mediterranean  fruit-fly  (Ceratitis  capitata  Wiedemann), 
which  has  become  a  very  serious  pest  in  Hawaii  and  several 
other  regions;  the  Queensland  fruit-fly  (Batrocera  tryoni 
Froggatt),  distributed  throughout  Malaysia  and  Australia ;  the 
mango  fruit-fly  (Dacus  ferrugineus  Fabricius),  which  occurs 
from  India  to  the  Philippines;  the  Mexican  fruit-fly  (Anas- 
trepha  ludens  Loew) ;  and  Anastrepha  fraterculus  Wiedemann, 
another  Mexican  species,  now  distributed  throughout  Central 
and  South  America  and  the  West  Indies.  Several  other 
species  have  also  been  reported  as  attacking  the  mango.  The 
females  of  these  flies  insert  their  eggs  beneath  the  skin  or  in 
the  flesh  of  the  fruit,  and  the  larvae  render  it  unfit  for  human 
consumption.  Control  is  difficult;  the  sweetened  arsenical 
sprays  have  met  with  varied  success,  and  control  by  means 
of  parasites  is  receiving  attention. 

In  some  parts  of  India  the  mango  hopper  (various  species  of 
Idiocerus)  is  troublesome.  H.  Maxwell-Lefroy  J  writes : 

"These  insects  resemble  the  Cicadas  superficially  but  are 
much  smaller,  being  one-sixth  of  an  inch  in  length.  They  are 
somewhat  wedge-shaped  with  wings  sloped  at  an  angle  over 
the  back.  Large  numbers  are  found  on  the  mango  trees 
throughout  the  hot  weather  but  especially  at  the  flowering 
season  when  there  is  a  flow  of  sap  to  the  flowering  shoots. 
These  insects  pass  through  their  active  life  on  the  tree,  sucking 
the  juice  of  the  soft  shoots  and  causing  them  to  wither.  .  .  . 
There  is  only  one  effective  treatment  which  must  be  adopted 
vigorously.  This  is  spraying  with  strong  contact  poison  such 
as  crude  oil  emulsion  or  sanitary  fluid." 
1  Indian  Insect  Pests. 


THE   MANGO  131 

Another  serious  pest  in  India  is  the  mango  weevil  (Sternoche- 
tus  mangiferce  Fabricius,  better  known  as  Cryptorhynchus 
mangiferce).  It  is  not  limited  to  India,  but  is  found  also  in 
the  Straits  Settlements,  the  Philippines,  South  Africa,  and 
Hawaii.  In  the  last-named  country  it  has  become  formidable. 
"The  insect  is  a  short,  thick-set  weevil,  dark  brown  in  color, 
one-third  of  an  inch  in  length.  .  .  .  The  grubs  bore  in  the 
kernels  of  the  mango  fruit  when  it  is  growing  large;  these 
grubs  pupate  inside  the  fruit  and  as  the  mango  ripens  become 
beetles,  eating  their  way  out  through  the  pulp  of  the.  fruit, 
which  they  spoil."  Maxwell-Lefroy  recommends  that  all 
infested  fruits  be  destroyed,  and  that  weevils  hiding  in  the 
bark  of  the  tree  be  killed  in  August.  Kerosene  emulsion  is 
useful  in  destroying  those  which  are  on  the  bark.  It  is  also 
advisable  to  cultivate  or  flood  the  ground  beneath  the  trees, 
in  order  to  kill  weevils  which  may  be  lurking  there. 

In  Florida,  red-spiders  and  thrips  are  responsible  for  exten- 
sive injury  to  foliage,  leading  to  disturbances  of  the  general 
health  of  the  trees;  but  contact  sprays,  e.g.,  lime-sulfur  or 
nicotine,  properly  applied,  will  effect  complete  eradication. 

The  mango  bark-borer  (Ploccsderus  ruficornis  Newman)  is 
a  formidable  enemy  of  the  mango  in  the  Philippines.  This  is 
a  large  beetle.  C.  R.  Jones  1  says  of  it : 

"The  mango  bark  borer,  while  a  comparatively  unknown 
pest  outside  the  vicinity  of  Manila,  is  exceedingly  dangerous, 
largely  on  account  of  its  feeding  habits,  which  make  detection 
difficult.  The  beetle  has,  so  far  as  we  know,  no  natural  enemies, 
being  fully  protected  both  in  the  larval  and  pupal  stages. 
Physical  remedies  are,  therefore,  necessary,  such  as  the  removal 
of  larvae  and  pupae  from  their  burrows  by  hand." 

The  mango  shoot  psylla  (Psylla  dstellata  Buckton)  is  re- 
ported only  from  India.  "It  injures  the  terminal  shoots  by 
producing  imbricated  pseudo-cones  of  a  bright  green  or  yellow 
1  Philippine  Bur.  Agr.  Circ.  No.  20. 


132     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

color  in  which  the  larval  and  pupal  stages  are  passed."  Dino- 
derus  distinctus  is  a  beetle  which  attacks  branches  of  the 
mango  in  India.  Sternochetiis  gravis  is  the  mango  weevil 
of  northern  India,  similar  to  the  common  mango  weevil 
described  above.  These  and  many  other  insects  reported  as 
attacking  the  mango  in  various  parts  of  the  world  are  described 
in  "A  Manual  of  Dangerous  Insects,"  published  by  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  (1917).  The  scale  insects 
are  particularly  numerous,  and  cannot  be  listed  here.  Several 
of  them  are  common  in  the  mango  orchards  of  Florida.  The 
genera  Aspidiotus,  Chionaspis,  Coccus,  Pulvinaria,  and  Saissetia 
are  well  represented  in  different  parts  of  the  world.  Generally 
speaking,  their  control  by  spraying  is  relatively  simple. 

RACES  AND  VARIETIES 

The  classification  of  mangos  must  be  considered  from  two 
distinct  standpoints.  First,  there  are  numerous  seedling 
races;  and  second,  there  are  horticultural  groups  of  varieties 
propagated  by  grafting  or  budding. 

The  seedling  races  have  not  been  studied  in  all  parts  of  the 
tropics.  Most  of  those  in  America  are  now  fairly  well  known, 
but  they  are  probably  few  compared  to  those  of  the  Asiatic 
tropics.  The  latter  region  has  not  been  explored  thoroughly. 

So  far  as  known,  all  the  seedling  races  are  poly  embryonic. 
Individuals  reproduce  the  racial  characteristics  with  remarkable 
constancy.  Numerous  writers  have  said  that  these  races  (in- 
correctly termed  varieties)  come  true  from  seed,  and  that  there 
is  no  need  of  grafting  or  budding.  There  is  enough  variation 
among  the  seedlings,  however,  to  make  some  of  them  more 
desirable  than  others.  When  one  has  been  propagated  by 
budding  or  grafting  it  becomes  a  true  horticultural  variety. 

The  classification  of  mangos  has  been  discussed  by  Burns 
and  Prayag  in  the  Agricultural  Journal  of  India  (1915) ;  by 


THE   MANGO  133 

P.  H.  Rolfs  in  Bulletin  127,  Florida  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station;  and  by  the  author  in  the  Proceedings  of  the 
American  Pomological  Society  for  1915  and  1917. 

The  abundance  of  grafted  mangos  has  led  Indian  investiga- 
tors to  neglect  the  seedling  races.  Doubtless  some  of  the 
horticultural  groups  of  grafted  varieties  represent  seedling 
races.  C.  Maries,  in  the  Dictionary  of  the  Economic  Products  of 
India,  grouped  the  named  varieties  with  which  he  was  familiar 
in  five  "cultivated  races.''  Probably  some  of  these  represent 
seedling  races.  The  antiquity  of  its  culture  in  India  and  the 
extensive  employment  of  vegetative  means  of  propagation  have 
placed  the  mango  on  a  different  footing  from  that  which  it 
occupies  in  regions  where  it  has  been  grown  relatively  a  short 
time  and  propagated  principally  by  seed.  In  India,  the  horti- 
cultural varieties  are  most  prominent;  elsewhere,  seedling 
races  (see  definition  of  a  race  in  the  discussion  of  avocado  races) 
are  more  in  evidence. 

The  mangos  of  the  Malayan  Archipelago  have  been  less 
thoroughly  studied,  from  a  pomological  standpoint,  than  those 
of  any  other  region.  The  botanist  Blume  (Museum  Botanicum 
Lugduno-Batavum)  viewed  them  botanically,  and  described  as 
botanical  varieties  a  number  of  forms  which  are  in  all  probability 
analogous  to  the  seedling  races  of  other  regions.  In  addition  to 
races,  there  are  a  number  of  distinct  species  of  Mangifera  in  the 
Malayan  region  which  bear  fruits  closely  resembling  true  mangos. 
These  must  be  studied  in  connection  with  any  attempt  to 
straighten  out  the  classification  of  horticultural  or  pomological 
forms. 

Cochin-China  appears  to  be  the  home  of  a  race  of  mangos 
which  is  unusual  in  character,  and  which  is  certainly  one  of  the 
most  valuable  of  all.  This  is  the  Cambodiana.  By  some  botan- 
ists it  is  considered  a  distinct  species  of  Mangifera.  It  seems 
to  be  identical  with  the  race  grown  in  the  Philippine  Islands. 
The  latter  has  been  carried  to  tropical  America,  where  it  is 


134     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

known  as  Manila  (Mexico)  and  Filipino  (Cuba).  David  Fair- 
child,  who  studied  this  race  in  Saigon,  Cochin-China,  and  intro- 
duced it  into  the  United  States,  describes  it  as  a  mango  of 
medium  size,  yellow  when  ripe,  furnished  with  a  short  beak, 
and  having  a  faint  but  agreeable  odor.  The  flesh  varies  from 
light  to  deep  orange  in  color,  and  is  never  fibrous.  The  flavor  is 
not  so  rich  as  that  of  the  Alphonse,  but  is  nevertheless  delicious. 
One  of  the  plants  grown  from  the  seed  sent  to  the  United  States 
by  Fairchild  has  given  rise  to  the  horticultural  variety  Cam- 
bodiana,  now  propagated  vegetatively  in  Florida. 

There  appear  to  be  several  different  forms  of  this  race. 
Three  forms  are  grown  in  the  Philippines,  where  they  are  dis- 
tinguished by  separate  names.  P.  J.  Wester  states : 

"  There  are  three  very  distinct  types  of  mangos  in  the  Philip- 
pines :  the  Carabao,  the  Pico  (also  known  as  Padero),  and  the 
Pahutan,  in  some  districts  called  Supsupen  and  Chupadero. 
The  Carabao  is  the  mango  most  esteemed  and  most  generally 
planted."  He  further  says,  "Although  uniform  as  types,  there 
is  considerable  variation  in  the  form  and  size  of  the  fruit  and 
presence  of  fiber  and  size  of  seed  in  both  the  Carabao  and  Pico 
mangos,  and  careful  selection  will  not  only  bring  to  light 
varieties  much  larger  than  the  average  fruit  of  these  types,  but 
also  those  having  a  much  smaller  percentage  of  fiber  and  seed 
than  the  average  fruit." 

The  seedling  mangos  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  have  been  given 
some  attention  by  Higgins.  In  Bulletin  12  of  the  Hawaii  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station  he  describes  a  number  of  them. 
Judging  from  his  illustration,  the  Hawaiian  Sweet  mango  is  the 
common  seedling  race  of  the  West  Indies. 

The  French  island  of  Reunion  is  said  to  be  the  source  of 

several  seedling  races  which  have  been  introduced  into  tropical 

America.     Paul  Hubert l  says  the  mango  has  become  thoroughly 

naturalized  in  this  island.      He  mentions    thirteen  varieties 

1  Fruits  des  Pays  Chauds. 


THE   MANGO  135 

which  are  the  most  common ;  the  names  of  several  are  the  same 
as  those  of  well-known  varieties  in  the  French  West  Indies. 

Little  is  known  of  the  mangos  cultivated  on  the  African 
coast  and  in  Madagascar. 

The  seedling  races  of  Cuba  and  those  of  Florida  are  prac- 
tically the  same,  seeds  having  carried  from  the  former  region 
to  the  latter.  The  principal  race  is  the  one  known  in  Cuba  as 
mango  (in  contradistinction  to  manga,  the  race  second  in  im- 
portance), and  in  Florida  as  No.  11.  This  is  the  common  race 
of  Mexico  and  many  other  parts  of  tropical  America.  For 
convenience  it  may  be  termed  the  West  Indian.  The  tree  is 
erect,  60  to  70  feet  in  height,  with  an  open  crown.  The  panicle 
is  8  to  12  inches  long,  with  the  axis  reddish  maroon  in  color. 
The  fruit  is  strongly  compressed  laterally,  with  curved  and 
beaked  apex.  It  is  yellow  in  color,  often  blushed  with  crimson ; 
the  fiber  is  long  and  coarse,  and  the  quality  of  the  fruit  poor, 
although  the  flavor  is  very  sweet. 

The  manga  race  of  Cuba  is  less  widely  grown  in  other  regions, 
although  it  is  well  represented  in  Florida.  The  tree  is  spreading, 
35  to  40  feet  high,  with  a  dense  round-topped  crown.  The 
panicle  is  6  to  10  inches  long,  stout,  pale  green  in  color,  often 
tinged  with  red.  The  fruit  is  plump,  not  beaked,  yellow  in 
color,  with  long,  fine  fibers  through  the  flesh.  Two  forms  of 
this  race  are  common,  manga  amarilla  and  manga  blanca.  The 
former,  known  in  Florida  as  turpentine  or  peach  mango,  has  an 
elongated  fruit,  deep  orange  yellow  in  color,  with  bright  orange 
flesh.  The  latter,  known  in  Florida  as  apple  or  Bombay 
mango,  has  a  roundish  oblique  fruit,  bright  yellow  in  color  with 
whitish  yellow  flesh. 

The  Filipino  (Philippine)  race  probably  reached  Cuba  from 
Mexico,  and  thence  was  carried  to  Florida.  It  is  the  most 
delicious  and  highly  esteemed  of  seedling  mangos  in  all  of  these 
regions.  Indeed,  it  ranks  in  quality  with  many  of  the  choice 
grafted  varieties  from  India.  The  tree  is  erect,  30  to  35  feet 


136     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

high,  with  a  dense  oval  crown.  The  panicle  is  12  to  24  inches 
long,  pale  green,  sometimes  tinged  with  red.  The  fruit  is 
strongly  compressed  laterally,  sharply  pointed  rather  than 
curved  or  beaked  at  the  apex,  lemon-yellow  in  color,  with  deep 
yellow  flesh  almost  free  from  fiber.  In  Florida  there  are  com- 
paratively few  trees  of  this  race. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  there  are  several  other  races  of 
limited  distribution  in  Cuba.  The  biscochuelo  mango  of 
Santiago  de  Cuba  is  an  excellent  fruit,  worthy  of  propagation 
in  other  regions.  The  mango  Chino  of  the  Quinta  Aviles  at 
Cienfuegos  (a  remarkable  mango  orchard  established  years  ago) 
is  a  large  fruit  always  in  great  demand  in  Habana  markets. 
It  is  not,  however,  of  rich  flavor  or  fine  quality.  Manga  mamey, 
also  of  the  Quinta  Aviles  at  Cienfuegos  is  of  better  quality  than 
mango  Chino,  but  is  not  so  well  known  in  Habana. 

In  Jamaica  the  No.  11  race  is  esteemed  above  most  other 
seedlings.  It  had  its  origin  in  one  of  the  grafted  trees  found 
on  a  captured  French  vessel  and  brought  to  the  island  in  1782, 
as  related  on  a  foregoing  page. 

The  seedling  races  of  Porto  Rico  have  been  treated  in  detail 
by  G.  N.  Collins  l  and  more  recently  by  C.  F.  Kinman.  The 
most  prolific  and  popular  race  is  known  as  mango  bianco.  The 
mangotina  is  found  near  Ponce ;  it  is  rather  inferior  in  quality. 
The  redondo  is  a  seven-ounce  fruit,  lacking  in  richness.  The 
largo  has  a  small  oval  fruit  with  much  fiber.  The  name  pina  is 
applied  to  several  distinct  forms,  the  commonest  being  a  long 
fruit  of  inferior  quality.  None  of  these  Porto  Rican  forms 
seems  to  merit  propagation. 

In  Mexico  the  principal  races  are  the  common  West  Indian, 
and  the  Manila  or  Filipino.  The  latter  is  grown  principally  in 
the  state  of  Vera  Cruz.  Its  culture  should  be  extended  to  other 
parts  of  the  country,  as  well  as  to  other  tropical  countries  where 
it  is  not  now  grown. 

1  Bull.  28,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 


THE   MANGO  137 

There  is  one  race  in  Brazil  which  is  of  exceptional  value.  This 
is  the  manga  da  rosa  (rose  mango),  grown  commercially  in  the 
vicinity  of  Pernambuco  and  to  a  less  extent  at  Bahia  and  Rio 
de  Janeiro.  While  frequently  propagated  by  grafting,  it  is 
polyembryonic  and  should  come  true  to  race  when  grown  from 
seed.  It  is  heart-shaped,  slightly  beaked;  and  of  good  size.  Its 
coloring  is  unusually  beautiful.  The  fiber  is  coarse  and  rather 
long,  but  not  so  troublesome  as  in  many  seedling  races.  The 
flavor  is  rich  and  pleasant.  This  mango  is  believed  to  have 
been  brought  to  Brazil  from  Mauritius.  The  espada  race  of 
Brazil  is  of  little  value  :  its  fruit  is  slender,  curved  at  both  ends, 
green  in  color,  and  of  poor  quality. 

The  horticultural  varieties  of  the  mango  are  numerous.  C. 
Maries  reported  having  collected  nearly  500,  of  which  100  were 
good.  Many  of  these  were,  however,  of  limited  distribution 
and  little  importance.  More  recent  Indian  writers  catalog 
from  100  to  200  varieties.  The  author  has  published  in  the 
Pomona  College  Journal  of  Economic  Botany  (December,  1911) 
a  descriptive  list  of  about  300,  which  includes  the  best-known 
from  all  parts  of  the  world.  Some  of  these,  however,  are  prob- 
ably seedling  races,  not  horticultural  varieties  propagated  by 
grafting  or  budding.  Many  writers  have  made  no  distinction 
between  races,  in  which  the  seedlings  reproduce  the  character- 
istics of  the  parent,  and  varieties,  which  can  be  propagated  only 
by  vegetative  means. 

The  confusion  which  involves  mango  nomenclature  in  India 
is  rather  appalling.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  in  numerous 
cases  the  same  name  is  applied  to  several  distinct  varieties,  and 
it  is  equally  certain  that  one  variety  in  some  instances  has 
several  different  names.  In  addition,  some  of  the  kinds  cata- 
logued by  Indian  nurserymen  probably  never  existed  outside 
of  their  own  imaginations.  There  are  only  a  few  varieties  which 
are  well  known  and  highly  esteemed  in  India.  Most  of  these 
have  been  introduced  into  the  mango-growing  regions  of  the 


138     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

Western  Hemisphere  by  the  Office  of  Foreign  Seed  and  Plant 
Introduction  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
The  varieties  described  in  the  following  pages  are  the  best 
which  have  been  tested  in  Florida  up  to  the  present.  Most  of 
them  are  well-known  Indian  sorts.  They  are  few  in  number,  but 
it  is  not  possible  to  include  in  such  a  work  as  this  a  fully  com- 
plete list.  The  classification  here  made  into  groups  based  on 
natural  resemblances  throws  related  varieties  together  and 
should  aid  the  prospective  planter  to  gain  an  idea  of  the  more 
salient  characteristics  of  each.  Only  the  most  important 
varieties  in  each  group  are  described. 

Mulgoba  group. 

In  this  group  the  tree  is  usually  erect,  with  a  broad,  dense 
crown.  The  leaves  are  slender,  smaller  (especially  in  the 
variety  Mulgoba)  than  in  some  of  the  other  groups,  the  primary 
transverse  veins  22  to  24  pairs,  moderately  conspicuous.  The 
panicle  is  usually  slender,  frequently  drooping,  12  to  18  inches 
in  length,  the  axis  and  laterals  varying  from  pale  green  tinged 
pink  to  rose  pink,  the  pubescence  heavier  than  in  most  other 
groups.  The  flowers  are  usually  very  abundant  on  the  panicle. 
The  staminodes  are  strongly  developed,  often  capitate,  one  or 
two  sometimes  fertile.  In  general,  varieties  of  this  group  re- 
quire the  stimulus  of  dry  weather  to  make  them  flower  pro- 
fusely, and  they  show  a  decided  tendency  to  drop  most  of  their 
fruits.  Haden,  however,  holds  its  fruits  well.  The  fruit  is 
usually  oval.  It  varies  in  color  from  dull  green  to  yellow 
blushed  red,  and  lacks  a  distinct  beak.  The  flesh  is  deep 
yellow  to  orange-yellow,  variable  in  quality.  The  seed  is 
normally  monoembryonic. 

Mulgoba  (Fig.  15).  —  Form  oblong  ovate  to  ovate,  laterally  com- 
pressed; size  medium  to  above  medium,  weight  91  to  14?  ounces, 
length  3|  to  4i  inches,  breadth  3  to  3|  inches,  base  flattened,  with 
the  stem  inserted  obliquely  in  a  very  shallow  cavity;  apex  rounded 


THE   MANGO 


139 


FIG.  15.     The  Mulgoba  mango.  (X  f) 


to  broadly  pointed,  the  nak  a  small  point  on  the  ventral  surface  about 
2  inch  above  the  longitudinal  apex ;  surface  slightly  undulating,  deep 
to  apricot-yellow  in  color,  sometimes  overspread  with  scarlet  around 
base  and  on  exposed  side,  dots 
few  to  numerous,  small,  lighter 
in  color  than  surface;  skin 
thick,  tough,  tenacious,  flesh 
bright  orange-yellow,  smooth  %'f 
and  fine  in  texture,  with  a 
pronounced  and  very  agreeable 
aroma,  very  juicy,  free  from 
fiber,  and  of  rich  piquant  fla- 
vor; quality  excellent;  seed 
oblong  to  oblong-reniform, 
plump,  with  sparse,  stiff,  short 
fibers  \  inch  long  over  the  sur- 
face. Season  in  Florida  July 
to  September. 

Introduced  into  the  United 

States  in  1889  from  Poona,  India,  by  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture.  This  was  the  first  grafted  Indian  variety  to  fruit  in 
the  United  States.  In  attractive  coloring,  delicate  aromatic-  flavor, 
and  freedom  from  fiber,  Mulgoba  is  scarcely  excelled,  but  it  has  proved 
irregular  in  its  fruiting  habits  and  for  this  reason  cannot  be  recom- 
mended for  commercial  planting  expect  in  regions  with  dry  climates. 
The  tree  does  not  come  into  bearing  at  an  early  age.  The  name 
Mulgoba  (properly  Malghoba)  is  taken  from  that  of  a  native  Indian 
dish,  and  means  "  makes  the  mouth  water." 

Haden  (Fig.  16).  —  Form  oval 
to  ovate,  plump;  size  large  to 
very  large,  weight  15  to  20 
ounces,  sometimes  •  up  to  24 
ounces,  length  4  to  5^  inches, 
breadth  3£  to  4i  inches,  base 
rounded,  the  stem  inserted  al- 
most squarely  without  depres- 
sion; apex  rounded  to  broadly 
pointed,  the  nak  depressed,  i 
inch  above  the  longitudinal 
apex;  surface  smooth,  light  to 
deep  apricot-yellow  in  color, 
overspread  with  crimson-scarlet, 
dots  numerous,  large  whitish  yellow  in  color,  skin  very  thick  and  tough ; 
flesh  yellowish  orange  in  color,  firm,  very  juicy,  fibrous  only  close  to  the 
seed,  and  of  sweet,  rich,  moderately  piquant  flavor ;  quality  good ;  seed 


FIG.  16.     The  Haden  mango.  (X  3) 


140     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

oblong,  plump,  with  considerable  fiber  along  the  ventral  edge  and  a 
few  short  stiff  bristles  elsewhere.  Season  in  Florida  July  and  August. 
Originated  at  Coconut  Grove,  Florida,  as  a  seedling  of  Mulgoba. 
First  propagated  in  1910.  The  fruit  is  not  so  fine  as  that  of  Mulgoba, 
but  the  tree  is  a  stronger  grower,  comes  into  fruit  at  an  early  age,  and 
bears  more  regularly. 


Alphonse  group. 

The  trees  of  this  group  are  usually  broad  and  spreading  in 
habit,  but  in  a  few  cases,  e.g.,  Amini,  they  may  be  rather  tall, 
with  an  oval  crown.  The  foliage  is  abundant,  bright  to  deep 
green  in  color,  the  leaves  medium  to  large  in  size,  with  primary 
transverse  veins  20  to  24  pairs,  fairly  conspicuous.  The  panicle 
is  large,  very  broad  toward  the  base,  stiff,  sometimes  stout,  10 
to  18  inches  long,  the  axis  and  laterals  pale  green  to  dull  rose- 
pink  in  color,  glabrate  to  very  finely  and  sparsely  pubescent. 
The  flowers  are  not  crowded  on  the  panicle.  The  staminodes 
are  poorly  developed,  rarely  capitate.  Most  varieties  of  this 
group  are  not  heavy  bearers.  Flowers  are  often  produced 
sparingly,  or  on  only  one  side  of  the  tree,  but  a  much  higher 
percentage  of  flowers  develops  into  fruits  than  in  the  Mulgoba 
group.  Under  average  conditions,  most  of  the  varieties  bear 
small  to  fair  crops.  The  fruit  is  longer  than  broad,  usually 
oblique  at  the  base,  and  lacks  a  beak.  The  stigmatic  point  or 
nak  often  forms  a  prominence  on  the  ventral  surface  above  the 
apex.  The  color  varies  from  yellowish  green  to  bright  yellow 
blushed  scarlet.  The  flesh  is  orange  colored,  free  from  fiber, 
and  is  characterized  by  rich  luscious  flavor,  in  some  varieties 
nearly  as  good  as  that  of  Mulgoba.  On  an  average,  the  quality 
of  fruit  is  better  than  in  any  other  group.  The  seed  contains 
but  one  embryo. 

Amini  (Fig.  17).  —  Form  oval,  laterally  compressed;  size  small 
to  below  medium,  weight  6  to  8  ounces,  length  3  to  3j  inches,  breadth 
2£  to  2-J  inches,  base  obliquely  flattened,  cavity  none ;  apex  rounded, 
the  nak  conspicuous  and  r\  inch  above  the  end  of  the  fruit ;  surface 


THE   MANGO 


141 


smooth,  deep  yellow  in  color  overspread  with  dull  scarlet  particularly 
around  the  base,  dots  numerous,  small,  pale  yellow;  skin  thick  and 
firm ;  flesh  bright  orange-yellow  in  color,  melting,  very  juicy,  strongly 
aromatic,  free  from  fiber,  and 
of  sweet  unusually  spicy  flavor ; 
quality  excellent ;  seed  oblong- 
oval,  very  thin,  with  only  a  few 
short  fibers  on  the  ventral  edge. 
Season  in  Florida  June  and 
July. 

Introduced  into  the  United 
States  in  1901  by  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture (S.  P.  I.  No.  7104)  from 
Bangalore,  India.  One  of  the 
most  satisfactory  Indian  varie- 
ties tested  in  Florida  and  the  FIG.  17.  Amini  mango.  (X  about 
West  Indies.  It  is  more  regu- 
lar in  bearing  than  many  others,  and  the  aroma  and  flavor  of  the  fruit 
are  excellent.  Not  to  be  confused  with  Amiri,  which  has  sometimes 
been  sold  under  the  name  Long  Amini.  Amin  (Sanskrit)  means  a 
tall,  pyramidal  mango  tree ;  amin  (Arabic)  means  constant,  faithful. 
Bennett  (Fig.  18).  —  Form  ovate-oblique  to  ovate-cordate,  very 
plump ;  size  below  medium  to  medium,  weight  7  to  12  ounces,  length 
3  to  3*  inches,  breadth  2f  to  3|  inches,  base  obliquely  flattened,  cavity 

almost  none;  apex  broadly 
pointed,  the  nak  level  or  slightly 
depressed,  about  f  inch  above 
end  of  fruit;  surface  smooth, 
yellow-green  to  yellow-orange, 
dots  few,  light  yellow;  skin 
thick  and  tough,  not  easily 
broken ;  flesh  deep  orange,  free 
from  fiber,  firm  and  meaty, 
moderately  juicy,  of  pleasant 
aroma  and  sweet,  rich,  piquant 
flavor ;  quality  excellent ;  seed 
oblong-reniform,  thick,  with 
short  stiff  fibers  over  the  entire 
surface.  Season  in  south  Flor- 
ida late  July  and  August. 

Introduced  into  the  United  States  in  1902  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  (S.  P.  I.  8419  and  8727)  from  Goregon,  near 
Bombay,  India.  Syn.  Douglas  Bennett's  Alphonse.  This  is  one  of 
the  esteemed  Alphonse  mangos  of  western  India.  Some  of  the  fruits 


FIG. 


The  Bennett  mango.  (X  |) 


142     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 


produced  in  Florida  have  been  characterized  by  hard  sour  lumps  in  the 
flesh,  hence  the  variety  has  not  made  such  a  favorable  impression  as 
would  otherwise  have  been  the  case.  The  tree  is  vigorous,  and  bears 
more  regularly  than  Mulgoba.  The  Alphonse  mangos  are  supposed  to 
have  been  named  for  Affonso  (Alphonse)  d'Albuquerque,  one  of  the 
early  governors  of  the  Portuguese  possessions  in  India.  The  name  has 
been  corrupted  to  Apoos,  Afoos,  Hafu. 

Pairi  (Fig.  19).  —  Form  ovate-reniform  to  ovate-oblique,  promi- 
nently beaked ;  size  below  medium  to  medium,  weight  7  to  10  ounces, 
length  3  to  3|  inches,  breadth  2|  to  31  inches  ;  base  obliquely  flattened, 
cavity  none;  apex  rounded  to  broadly  pointed,  with  a  conspicuous 
beak  slightly  above  it  on  the  ventral  side  of  the  fruit ;  surface  smooth 
to  undulating,  yellow-green  in  color,  suffused  scarlet  around  the  base, 

the  dots  few,  small,  whitish 
yellow ;  skin  moderately  thick  ; 
flesh  bright  yellow-orange  in 
color,  firm  but  juicy,  of  fine 
texture,  free  from  fiber,  of  pro- 
nounced and  pleasant  aroma 
and  sweet,  rich,  spicy  flavor; 
quality  excellent;  seed  thick, 
with  short  bristly  fibers  over 
the  entire  surface.  Season  in 
south  Florida  July  and  August. 
Introduced  into  the  United 
States  in  1902  from  Bombay, 
India,  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  (S. 
P.  I.  8730) ;  a  variety  (S.  P.  I. 
29510)  introduced  under  the 
same  name  in  1911  from  Poona,  India,  has  proved  to  be  slightly  differ- 
ent. Syns.  Paheri,  Pirie,  Pyrie.  Ranks  second  only  to  Alphonse  in 
the  markets  of  Bombay,  India.  William  Burns  says,  "  Personally  I 
prefer  the  slightly  acid  Pairi  to  the  heavier  and  more  luscious  Alphonse." 
Two  subvarieties  are  known  in  India,  Moti  Pairi  and  Kagdi  Pairi. 
The  tree  is  a  good  grower,  and  resembles  Bennett  in  productiveness, 
although  it  sometimes  fruits  more  heavily.  The  word  Pairi  is  probably 
a  corruption  of  the  Portuguese  proper  name  Pereira. 

Rajpuri.  —  Form  roundish  ovate  to  ovate-reniform,  beaked ; 
size  below  medium  to  medium,  weight  8  to  12  ounces,  length  3j  to 
3f  inches,  breadth  3  to  3?  inches ;  base  flattened,  scarcely  oblique, 
cavity  none;  apex  bluntly  pointed,  with  the  prominent  nak  to  one 
side ;  surface  smooth,  green-yellow  to  yellow  in  color,  over-spread  with 
scarlet  on  exposed  side  and  around  base;  dots  small,  numerous, 
whitish ;  skin  moderately  thick ;  flesh  deep  yellow  in  color,  free  from 


FIG.   19.     The  Pairi  mango.  (X  f) 


THE   MANGO  143 

fiber,  juicy,  with  pronounced  aroma  and  rich  piquant  flavor ;  quality 
excellent;  seed  oblong-elliptic,  thick,  with  short  stiff  fibers  over  the 
surface.  Season  July  and  August  in  Florida. 

Introduced  into  the  United  States  in  1901  from  Bangalore,  India, 
by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  (S.  P.  I.  7105). 
Syns.  Rajpury,  Rajapuri,  Rajabury,  and  Rajapurri.  A  fruit  of  fine 
quality,  with  aroma  and  flavor  distinct  from  that  of  other  mangos. 
Its  fruiting  habits  have  proved  fairly  good.  Rajpur,  name  of  a  town 
in  India  (perhaps  Rajapurf). 

Sandersha  group. 

The  tree  is  erect,  stiff,  with  the  crown  less  broad  than  in 
the  Mulgoba  group  and  usually  not  so  umbrageous.  The 
foliage  is  fairly  abundant,  deep  green  in  color,  the  leaves  com- 
paratively small  but  broad,  with  primary  transverse  veins  18 
to  24  pairs,  moderately  conspicuous.  The  panicle  is  small  to 
large,  broad  toward  the  base,  8  to  18  inches  long,  stiff,  the  axis 
and  laterals  deep  magenta-pink  to  bright  maroon,  the  pubes- 
cence very  minute  and  inconspicuous.  The  flowers  are 
abundant  but  not  closely  crowded  on  the  panicle.  The  stami- 
nodes  are  weakly  developed,  rarely  capitate  or  fertile.  Varieties 
of  this  group  often  flower  in  unfavorable  weather,  and  they 
remain  in  bloom  during  a  long  period.  On  the  whole,  the  group 
is  characterized  by  a  higher  degree  of  productiveness  than  any 
other  class  of  Indian  mangos  yet  grown  in  the  United  States. 
The  fruit  is  long,  usually  tapering  to  both  base  and  apex  and 
terminating  in  a  prominent  beak  at  the  apex,  large  in  size,  deep 
yellow  in  color,  the  flesh  orange-yellow,  and  free  from  fiber. 
The  somewhat  acid  flavor  makes  the  mangos  of  this  group  more 
valuable  as  culinary  than  as  dessert  fruits.  The  seed  is  long, 
containing  normally  one  embryo,  the  cotyledons  often  not  filling 
the  endocarp  completely. 

Sandersha  (Fig.  20).  —  Form  oblong,  tapering  toward  stem  and 
prominently  beaked  at  the  apex ;  size  large  to  extremely  large,  weight 
18  to  32  ounces,  length  61  to  8  inches,  breadth  3f  to  4i  inches ;  base 
slender,  extended;  apex  broadly  pointed,  with  the  nak  forming 
a  prominent  beak  to  the  ventral  side;  surface  smooth,  yellow  to 


144      MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 


golden  yellow  in  color,  sometimes  blushed  scarlet  on  exposed  side, 
dots  numerous,  small,  yellow-gray;  flesh  orange-yellow  in  color, 
meaty,  moderately  juicy,  free  from  fiber,  and  of  subacid,  slightly  aro- 
matic flavor ;  dessert  quality  fair,  culinary  quality  excellent ;  seed  long, 
slender,  slightly  curved,  with  fiber  only  along  the  ventral  edge.  Season 
in  south  Florida  August  and  September. 

Introduced  into  the  United  States  in  1901  from  Bangalore,  India, 
by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  (S.  P.  I.  7108). 
Syns.  Soondershaw,  Sandershaw,  Sundersha.  A  variety  introduced 
from  Saharanpur,  India,  under  the  name  Sundershah  (S.  P.  I.  10665)  is 

probably  distinct.  The  tree  he  s 
remarkably  good  fruiting  habits. 
Etymology  of  name  unknown. 

Totapari.  —  Form  oval  to  ob- 
1  jng-reniform,  beaked ;  size  me- 
dium, weight  10  to  12  ounces, 
length  41  to  5  inches,  breadth  3 
to  31  inches ;  base  rounded,  the 
stem  inserted  squarely ;  apex 
broadly  pointed,  with  the  nak 
forming  a  prominent  beak  to  the 
ventral  side ;  surface  smooth, 
greenish  yellow  in  color,  over- 
spread with  scarlet  on  exposed 
side  ;  skin  moderately  thick  and 
tough;  flesh  bright  yellow  in 
FIG.  20.  The  Sandersha  mango.  The  color  unusually  juicy,  free  from 

™,  1SKDOt  soprichlyKflfVOred  af,  thf *  of  fiber,  moderately  aromatic,  and 
Mulgoba  or  Pain,  but  is  excellent  for  ,  .  ,  I  .  i  •  i  n 

cooking.  (X  I)  of  subacld»  moderately  rich  fla- 

vor ;  dessert  quality  fair,  culi- 
nary quality  good ;  seed  oblong,  rather  thin,  with  small  amount  of 
fiber  on  edges.  Season  in  south  Florida  August  and  September. 

Introduced  into  the  United  States  in  1902  from  Bombay,  India, 
by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  (S.  P.  I.  8732). 
Syn.  Totafari.  The  tree  does  not  bear  as  well  as  Sandersha,  nor  is 
the  fruit  quite  as  good.  The  name  means  "parrot's  beak." 

Cambodiana  group. 

In  this  group  the  tree  is  erect,  with  the  crown  usually  oval, 
never  broadly  spreading,  and  densely  umbrageous.  The  foliage 
is  abundant,  deep  green  in  color,  the  leaves  medium  sized  to 
rather  large,  with  primary  transverse  veins  more  numerous 
than  in  other  groups,  commonly  26  to  30  pairs,  quite  con- 


THE   MANGO 


145 


spicuous.  The  odor  of  the  crushed  leaves  is  distinctive.  The 
panicle  is  very  large,  loose,  slender,  12  to  20  inches  in  length, 
and  laterals  pale  green  to  dull  magenta-pink,  very  finely  pubes- 
cent. The  staminodes  are  poorly  developed,  rarely  capitate 
or  fertile.  The  varieties  of  this  group  usually  bloom  profusely ; 
those  from  Indo-China  are  productive,  while  the  Philippine 
seedlings  in  Florida  sometimes  bear  excellent  crops  and  in  other 
seasons  drop  all  their  flowers.  Three  to  five  fruits,  or  even  more, 
may  develop  on  one  panicle.  In  form  the  fruits  are  always  long, 
strongly  compressed  laterally,  and  usually  sharply  pointed  at  the 
apex,  lemon-yellow  to  deep  yellow  in  color,  with  bright  yellow 
flesh  almost  free  from  fiber  and  of  characteristic  sprightly  sub- 
acid  flavor,  lacking  the  rich- 
ness of  some  of  the  Indian 
mangos.  The  seed  is  oblong, 
normally  polyembryonic. 

Cambodiana  (Fig.  21).  —  \ 
Form  oblong  to  oblong-ovate, 
compressed  laterally ;  size  below 
medium  to  medium,  weight  8  to 
10  ounces,  length  3|  to  4j  inches, 
breadth  2\  to  2f  inches;  base 
rounded,  the  stem  inserted 
squarely  or  slightly  to  one 
side  without  depression;  apex 
pointed,  the  nak  a  small  point  pIG  2l.  The  Cambodiana  mango.  (X  I) 
%  inch  above  the  longitudinal 

apex ;  surface  smooth,  yellow-green  to  deep  yellow  in  color,  dots  almost 
wanting ;  skin  very  thin  and  tender ;  flesh  deep  yellow  in  color,  very 
juicy,  free  from  fiber,  and  of  mild,  subacid,  slightly  aromatic  flavor; 
quality  good ;  seed  elliptic-oblong,  thick,  with  short  fiber  on  ventral 
edge.  Season  in  Florida  late  June  to  early  August. 

Originated  at  Miami,  Florida,  from  a  seed  introduced  in  1902  from 
Saigon,  Cochin  China,  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
(S.  P.  I.  8701).  A  later  importation  of  seeds  from  the  same  region 
(S.  P.  I.  11645)  has  given  rise  to  another  variety  propagated  by  budding 
which  differs  slightly  from  the  one  here  described.  The  tree  bears 
more  regularly  than  most  of  the  Indian  varieties.  Named  for  Cam- 
bodia, a  region  of  French  Indo-China. 


CHAPTER  IV 
RELATIVES   OF   THE   MANGO 

WHILE  the  mango  is  the  leading  fruit  of  the  Anacardiacese  or 
Cashew  family,  yet  other  species  are  more  or  less  cultivated 
and  should  be  briefly  discussed  here.  The  family  comprises 
as  a  whole  some  400  species  in  about  60  genera,  widely  dis- 
tributed over  the  earth,  mostly  in  warm  countries.  Some  of  the 
species  (as  poison  ivy  and  sumac)  are  poisonous;  but  it  is 
probable  that  it  comprises  many  comestible  products  of  value. 
The  pistachio-nut  is  one  of  them. 

THE  CASHEW  (Fig.  22) 
(Anacardium  occidental,  L.) 

The  Brazilians  are  the  only  people  who  fully  appreciate  the 
cashew.  Father  J.  S.  Tavares,  whose  studies  of  Brazilian 
fruits  are  probably  the  most  exhaustive  as  well  as  the  most 
interesting  which  have  been  published,  says  of  this  tree :  "  It 
furnishes  food  and  household  remedies  to  the  poor,  a  refreshing 
beverage  to  the  sick,  a  sweetmeat  for  tables  richly  served, 
and  resin  and  good  timber  for  industrial  uses." 

The  readiness  with  which  the  cashew  grows  and  fruits  in  a 
semi-wild  state  has  kept  it  from  receiving  the  horticultural 
attention  which  other  and  more  delicate  species  have  enjoyed. 
In  nearly  all  regions  where  it  is  grown,  it  is  more  common  as  a 
naturalized  plant  than  in  the  fruit  garden.  It  does  not  object 
to  such  treatment,  but  multiplies  rapidly,  grows  vigorously, 
and  yields  abundantly  of  its  handsome  fruit. 

146 


RELATIVES   OF    THE   MANGO 


147 


To  see  the  cashew  at  its  best,  one  must  visit  the  markets  of 
Bahia  or  some  other  city  of  the  Brazilian  coast.  Here,  during 
the  short  season  in  which  they  ripen,  immense  heaps  of  cashews 
are  piled  up  on  every  side.  Its  brilliant  shades  of  color,  varying 
from  yellow  to  scarlet,  and  its  characteristic  and  penetrating 
aroma  combine  to  make 
this  one  of  the  most 
enticing  of  all  tropical 
fruits. 

The  cashew  is  a 
spreading  evergreen 
tree  growing  up  to  40 
feet  in  height.  One  of 
the  early  voyagers, 
Father  Simam  de  Vas- 
concellos,  speaks  of  it 
as  "  the  most  handsome 
of  all  the  trees  of  Amer- 
ica," for  which  extrava- 
gant statement  Father 
Tavares  takes  him  to 
task.  The  cashew  can- 
not fairly  be  called 
handsome;  indeed,  it 
is  oftentimes  awkward 
or  ungainly  in  habit, 
with  crooked  trunk  and 
branches.  The  leaves, 
which  are  clustered  to- 
ward the  ends  of  the  stiff  branchlets,  are  oblong-oval  or  oblong- 
obovate  in  form,  rounded  or  sometimes  emarginate  at  the  apex, 
and  acute  to  cuneate  at  the  base.  They  vary  between  4  and  8 
inches  in  length,  and  2  and  3  inches  in  breadth. 

The  flowers  are  produced  in  terminal  panicles  6  to  10  inches 


FIG.  22.  Foliage,  flowers,  and  fruit  of  the 
cashew  (Anacardium  occidentale) .  The  kidney- 
shaped  seed  (properly  speaking,  the  fruit)  con- 
tains an  edible  kernel  of  delicious  flavor,  while 
the  fleshy  portion  (fruit-stalk)  above  it  is  filled 
with  aromatic  juice,  and  may  be  used  in  many 
ways.  (X  about  \) 


148     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

long.  The  cashew,  like  the  mango,  is  polygamous;  that  is, 
some  of  the  flowers  are  unisexual  (staminate)  and  others 
bisexual,  both  types  being  produced  on  the  same  panicle.  The 
calyx  is  five-partite,  the  corolla  i  inch  broad,  with  five  linear- 
lanceolate,  yellow-pink  petals.  The  stamens  are  usually  nine 
in  number,  all  fertile.  The  ovary  is  obovoid,  with  the  style 
placed  to  one  side. 

The  fruit  is  peculiar.  The  part  which  would  be  taken  for  the 
fruit  at  first  glance  is  in  reality  the  swollen  peduncle  and  disk, 
while  the  fruit  proper  is  the  kidney-shaped  cashew-nut  attached 
to  its  lower  end.  The  fleshy  portion  may  be  termed  the  cashew- 
apple,  in  order  to  distinguish  it  from  the  true  fruit,  or  cashew- 
nut.  It  differs  in  size,  being  sometimes  as  much  as  3i  inches  in 
length,  while  it  may  be  less  than  2  inches.  The  surface  is 
commonly  brilliant  yellow  or  flame-scarlet  in  color.  The  skin 
is  a  thin  membrane,  easily  broken ;  the  flesh  light  yellow  in  color 
and  very  juicy.  The  kidney-shaped  nut  which  is  attached  to  its 
lower  end  contains  the  single  oblong  seed. 

The  cashew  was  formerly  thought,  by  some  writers  at  least, 
to  be  indigenous  both  in  America  and  Asia.  It  has  been  shown, 
however,  that  it  was  originally  confined  to  America,  whence  it 
was  carried  to  Asia  and  Africa  by  early  Portuguese  voyagers. 
Jacques  Huber  l  considered  it  indigenous  on  the  campos  (plains) 
and  dunes  of  the  lower  Amazon  region  and  the  north  Brazilian 
coast  in  general.  It  spread  very  early  to  other  parts  of  the 
tropical  American  seacoast,  and  probably  was  introduced  into 
the  West  Indies  by  the  Indians  who  reached  those  islands  from 
the  South  American  mainland  before  the  arrival  of  Europeans. 
Gabriel  Soares  de  Souza,  one  of  the  earliest  chroniclers  of 
Brazil,  found  the  tree  growing  both  wild  and  cultivated  on  the 
coast  of  Bahia  in  the  sixteenth  century.  He  mentions  a  "fra- 
grant and  delicious  wine"  which  the  Indians  prepared  from  the 
fruit. 

1  Boletim  do  Museu  Goeldi,  1904. 


RELATIVES   OF   THE   MANGO  149 

At  the  present  time  the  cashew  is  common  on  the  mainland 
of  tropical  America  from  Mexico  to  Peru  and  Brazil.  It  is 
abundant  also  in  the  West  Indies.  In  Africa  it  is  found  on 
both  the  east  and  west  coasts,  and  in  Madagascar.  In  southern 
India  it  has  become  thoroughly  naturalized  in  many  of  the 
coastal  forests.  It  is  grown  in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and  is 
said  to  be  abundant  in  Tahiti.  In  Hawaii  it  is  not  very 
common. 

Regarding  its  occurrence  in  India,  Dymock,  Warden,  and 
Hooper  (Pharmacographia  Indica)  say : 

"It  was  not  known  in  Goa  A.D.  1550;  but  Christopher  a 
Costa  saw  it  in  Cochin  shortly  after  this.  ...  In  1653  only 
a  few  trees  existed  on  the  Malabar  coast;  since  then  it  has 
become  completely  naturalized  ^n  the  western  coast,  but  is 
nowhere  so  abundant  as  in  the  Goa  territory,  where  it  yields  a 
very  considerable  revenue.  It  is  planted  upon  the  low  hilly 
ridges  which  intersect  the  country  in  every  direction,  and  which 
are  too  dry  and  stony  for  other  crops.  The  cultivation  gives 
no  trouble,  tne  jungle  being  simply  cut  down  to  make  room  for 
the  plants." 

In  the  United  States  the  culture  of  this  tree  is  limited  to  the 
coast  of  Florida,  south  of  Palm  Beach  and  Punta  Gorda,  approx- 
imately. There  are  sturdy  fruiting  trees  both  at  Palm  Beach 
and  Miami.  In  California  all  experiments  up  to  the  present 
time  have  indicated  that  the  climate  is  not  warm  enough  for  it. 

In  Mexico  and  Central  America  the  cashew  is  common  on 
the  seacoast  but  is  rarely  found  at  elevations  higher  than  3000 
feet.  At  altitudes  of  5000  or  6000  feet  the  climate  appears  to 
be  too  cool  for  the  tree. 

The  English  name  cashew  is  an  adaptation  of  the  Portuguese 
caju.  The  latter  was  taken  by  the  earliest  settlers  in  Brazil 
from  the  Tupi  name  acaju.  In  the  Spanish-speaking  countries 
of  tropical  America  the  usual  name  is  maranon,  presumably 
from  the  Brazilian  state  of  Maranhao.  The  name  pajuil  is 


150     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

used  in  Porto  Rico,  while  in  Guatemala  the  similarity  of  the 
cashew  to  its  relative  the  mombin  (Spondias  Mombiri)  is  recog- 
nized in  the  common  name  jocote  maranon  (the  mombin  being 
called  simply  jocote).  In  India  the  form  kaju  (gajus  in  the 
Malayan  region)  has  appeared,  in  addition  to  a  number  of 
names  not  derived  from  the  American  caju.  In  French  the 
cashew-apple  is  called  pomme  d' acajou,  and  the  nut  noix  d' acajou. 
The  latter  is  termed  castanha  (chestnut)  in  Brazil. 

In  many  regions  the  nut  is  more  extensively  used  than  the 
apple  or  fleshy  portion.  In  Brazil  this  is  not  the  case. 

The  cashew-apple  is  soft,  juicy,  acid,  and  highly  astringent 
before  maturity,  retaining  sufficient  astringency  when  fully  ripe 
to  lend  it  zest.  Owing  to  its  remarkably  penetrating,  almost 
pungent  aroma,  the  jam  or  sweetmeat  made  from  it  possesses 
a  characteristic  and  highly  pleasing  quality.  It  is  also  used 
to  supply  both  a  wine  and  a  refreshing  beverage,  similar  to 
lemonade,  which  the  Brazilians  know  as  cajuada.  The  wine, 
which  is  manufactured  commercially  in  northern  Brazil,  retains 
the  characteristic  aroma  and  flavor  of  the  fresh  fruit.  The 
preserved  fruit  in  various  forms  also  is  an  article  of  commerce. 

In  several  countries  the  cashew-nut  is  produced  commercially 
and  exported  to  Europe  and  North  America.  According  to  Con- 
sul Lucien  Memminger,  shipments  to  the  United  States  from 
the  Madras  Presidency  in  India  during  the  year  1915  totaled 
2288  cwt.,  valued  at  $28,063.  "About  15,000  cwt.  of  these 
nuts  are  now  exported  in  an  average  season  to  England,  France, 
and  America,  the  principal  port  of  shipment  being  Mangalore." 

The  cashew-nut  is  kidney-shaped,  and  about  an  inch  in 
length.  The  soft,  thick,  cellular  shell  or  pericarp  incloses  a 
slightly  curved,  white  kernel  of  fine  texture  and  delicate  flavor. 
To  prepare  the  nuts  for  eating,  they  are  roasted  over  a  charcoal 
fire.  The  shell  contains  cardol  and  anacardic  acid  substances 
which  severely  burn  the  mouth  and  lips  of  any  one  who  attempts 
to  bite  into  a  fresh  nut.  Since  these  principles  are  decomposed 


PLATE  VIII.      Upper,  the  cherimoya  at  its  best ;  lower,  the  soursop 
and  other  fruits. 


RELATIVES  OF    THE   MANGO  151 

by  heat,  the  roasted  nut  can  be  eaten  without  the  slightest  in- 
convenience or  danger.  The  kernel  is  said  to  contain :  fats 
47.13  per  cent,  nitrogenous  matter  9.7  per  cent,  and  starch  5.9 
per  cent.  An  analysis  made  in  Hawaii  by  Alice  R.  Thompson 
showed  the  presence  of  protein  to  the  amount  of  14.43  per  cent, 
ash  2.58  per  cent,  fat  4.56  per  cent,  and  fiber  1.27  per  cent. 

The  cashew  is  not  particular  in  regard  to  the  soil  on  which  it 
grows,  but  it  is  intolerant  of  frost  and  can  only  be  cultivated 
successfully  in  regions  where  temperatures  much  below  the 
freezing  point  are  rarely  experienced.  An  account  of  its 
culture  in  southwestern  India  is  given  in  the  Daily  Consular 
and  Trade  Reports  for  November  3,  1914 : 

"  Cashew-nut  trees  can  be  grown  successfully  on  any  soil.  They 
thrive  in  sandy  places  as  well  as  on  stone,  and  are  not  fastidious  in 
point  of  soil,  but  are  generally  grown  where  no  other  crop  can  be 
produced.  In  this  district  there  are  many  sand  hills,  especially  below 
Ghats,  which  are  utilized  for  this  crop.  Along  seacoasts  which  are 
exposed  to  severe  gusts  of  wind,  the  plants  never  attain  the  form  of  a 
tree,  but  keep  along  the  ground,  producing  small  branches. 

"  Seeds  .  .  .  are  usually  planted  in  the  month  of  June,  at  a  distance 
of  about  15  feet  each  way.  In  many  cases  this  distance  proves  to  be 
insufficient.  The  plants  are  watered  the  first  year  only.  No  other 
care  is  taken  of  them.  The  plantation  is  usually  inclosed  by  walls. 

"  The  plants  begin  to  bear  from  the  third  year  and  continue  till 
the  age  of  about  fifteen,  at  which  stage  the  trees  exude  a  gummy  sub- 
stance in  large  quantities  and  then  die." 

In  other  regions  the  trees  live  to  a  greater  age  than  fifteen 
years.  Reports  from  many  parts  of  the  world  indicate  that  they 
may  come  into  bearing  the  second  or  third  year.  P.  W. 
Reasoner  recommended  the  cashew  for  cultivation  in  northern 
greenhouses,  because  of  its  habit  of  bearing  at  an  early  age. 

In  Brazil  the  cashew  flowers  in  August  and  September  and 
ripens  its  fruit  from  November  to  February.  In  southern 
India  the  flowering  season  is  December  and  January,  and  the 
fruit  ripens  in  March.  An  Indian  writer  estimates  the  yield 
of  a  mature  tree  at  115  to  150  pounds  of  fruit  yearly.  "To  get 


152     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

one  maund  (28  pounds)  of  kernels  about  li  candies  (115  pounds) 
of  seed  nuts  are  required." 

Very  few  pests  have  been  reported  as  affecting  the  cashew. 
Father  Tavares  1  mentions  a  fungus  parasite  which  attacks  the 
branchlets,  leaves,  and  flowers  at  Bahia,  Brazil.  The  red- 
banded  thrips  (Heliothrips  rubrocinctus  Giard.)  sometimes 
attacks  the  tree  in  the  West  Indies.  H.  Maxwell-Lefroy  men- 
tions two  other  species  of  thrips  which  have  been  found  on  the 
cashew  in  Mysore,  India  :  these  are  Idolothrips  halidaji  Newm. 
and  Phloeothrips  anacardii  Newm.  (?). 

Seedling  cashew  trees  differ  in  the  character  and  quantity 
of  fruit  they  yield.  In  Brazil  the  trees  which  produce  the 
largest  and  finest  fruits  are  distinguished  with  varietal  names. 
Some  of  these  trees  acquire  local  reputations. 

Recently  P.  J.  Wester  has  shown  that  the  cashew  can  be 
shield-budded.  By  employing  this  method,  it  is  easily  possible 
to  propagate  choice  varieties  originating  as  chance  seedlings. 
The  reader  is  referred  to  Wester's  publication  "  Plant  Propaga- 
tion in  the  Tropics,"  2  one  of  the  most  valuable  contributions 
which  have  been  made  to  tropical  pomology. 

The  method  of  budding  the  cashew  is  essentially  the  same 
as  that  described  in  the  chapter  on  the  avocado.  Wester  says 
in  brief:  "Use  nonpetioled,  mature  budwood  which  is  turning 
grayish ;  cut  the  bud  li  to  If  inches  long ;  insert  the  bud  in 
the  stock  at  a  point  of  approximately  the  same  age  and  appear- 
ance as  the  cion." 

THE  IMBU  (Fig.  23) 
(Spondias  tuberosa,  Arruda.) 

Of  the  several  fruits  belonging  to  the  genus  Spondias  which 
are  grown  in  various  parts  of  the  tropics,  the  imbu,  although 

1  In  Broteria,  xiv,  January,  1916. 

2  Bull.  32,  Philippine  Bur.  Agr.,  1916. 


RELATIVES   OF    THE   MANGO 


153 


relatively  little  known,  is  perhaps  the  best.     It  merits  culti- 
vation wherever  climate  and  soil  are  suited  to  its  growth. 

The  imbu  grows  spontaneously  upon  the  catingas  or  dry 
plains  of  northeastern  Brazil.  Rarely  is  it  cultivated,  since  the 
wild  trees  furnish  more  fruit  than  can  be  consumed.  It  has 
been  planted,  however,  in  a  few  localities  where  the  wild  trees 
are  not  found.  It  was  introduced  into  the  United  States  in 
1914,  but  so  far  as  is  known,  has  not  been  planted  in  other 
countries.  In  view  of  its  abundance  in  its  native  home,  it  is 
strange  that  a  fruit  of  such  good  quality  should  have  escaped 
the  attention  of  horti-  ^^ 

culturists  until  very  re-           /?S&  u/ 

cently.  //ffiS^      Jl V     , 

The  imbu  tree  is  dis- 
tinguishable from  other 
growths  on  the  catinga 
by  its  low  spreading 
crown,  which  is  of  ten  25 
feet  in  diameter.  The 
roots  are  swollen 
(whence  the  specific 
name  tuberosa),  and  are 
said  by  M.  Pio  Correa  to  be  used  as  food  in  times  of  scarcity. 
The  leaves  are  4  to  6  inches  long,  with  five  to  nine  oblong-ovate 
leaflets,  equilateral  or  nearly  so,  subserrate  or  entire,  and  from 
1  to  If  inches  in  length.  The  small  white  flowers  are  borne  in 
panicles  4  to  6  inches  long.  Like  those  of  other  species  of 
Spondias,  the  flowers  are  composed  of  a  calyx  having  four  or 
five  segments  and  a  corolla  of  four  or  five  valvate  petals.  The 
stamens  are  eight  to  ten  in  number,  the  styles  three  to  five. 

The  fruit  is  produced  on  slender  stems,  mainly  toward  the  ends 
of  the  branches.  Some  trees  are  so  productive  that  the  fruit, 
when  allowed  to  fall,  forms  a  carpet  of  yellow  upon  the  ground. 
In  general  appearance  the  imbu  may  be  likened  to  a  Green 


FIG.  23. 


Fruiting  twig  of  the  imbu  (Spondias 
tuberosa).     (X  about  i) 


154     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

Gage  plum.  It  is  oval,  about  H  inches  in  length,  and  greenish 
yellow  in  color.  The  skin  is  thicker  than  that  of  a  plum,  and 
quite  tough.  The  flavor  of  the  soft,  melting,  almost  liquid  flesh 
is  suggestive  of  a  sweet  orange.  If  eaten  before  it  is  fully 
ripe,  the  fruit  is  slightly  acid.  The  seed  is  oblong  and  about  f 
inch  in  length. 

In  its  native  home  the  imbu  is  eaten  as  a  fresh  fruit,  and  also 
furnishes  a  popular  jelly.  It  is  used  besides  to  make  imbuzada, 
a  famous  dessert  of  northern  Brazil.  This  is  prepared  by 
adding  the  juice  of  the  fruit  to  boiled  sweet  milk.  The  mixture 
is  greenish  white  in  color  and  when  sweetened  to  taste  is  relished 
by  nearly  every  one. 

While  the  tree  is  susceptible  to  frost,  it  cannot  be  considered 
strictly  tropical.  In  south  Florida  young  plants  have  with- 
stood temperatures  of  28°  above  zero  without  serious  injury. 
Little  is  known  regarding  its  adaptability  to  various  soils  and 
alien  climates.  While  the  wild  trees  are  found  on  very  dry  soil 
in  a  region  of  little  rainfall,  it  is  possible  that  other  conditions 
will  prove  suitable.  A  few  bearing  trees  were  seen  by  the  writer 
in  the  city  of  Bahia,  Brazil,  where  the  humidity  is  great  and  the 
annual  rainfall  about  60  inches.  In  south  Florida  it  has  been 
tried  at  Miami,  but  has  not  done  well.  Its  failure  there  has 
been  attributed  to  the  large  amount  of  lime  contained  in  the 
soil,  but  it  is  not  certainly  known  that  this  is  the  limiting 
factor.  The  soil  on  the  Brazilian  catingas  is  a  gravelly  loam, 
sometimes  mixed  with  clay,  sometimes  sandy. 

Fruit  from  the  wild  trees  varies  in  size,  color,  and  quality. 
It  should  be  easy  to  propagate  the  best  seedlings  by  cuttings ; 
at  least,  other  species  of  Spondias  are  propagated  in  this  way. 
Mature  wood  is  used.  At  Miami,  Florida,  the  imbu  has  been 
inarched  on  the  ambarella  (see  below) .  Seeds  are  easily  induced 
to  grow,  and  should  be  germinated  in  flats  or  boxes  of  light  soil. 


RELATIVES  OF   THE   MANGO  155 

THE  AMBARELLA  (Plate  VI) 

(Spondias  cytherea,  Sonnerat.) 

This  is  probably  the  most  widely  cultivated  species  of 
Spondias,  although  it  is  not  so  extensively  distributed,  in  its 
wild  state,  as  the  yellow  mombin.  It  is  known  in  many 
tropical  countries  and  can  be  cultivated  successfully  as  far 
north  as  southern  Florida.  While  not  generally  considered 
a  fruit  of  excellent  quality,  an  occasional  tree  is  much  superior 
to  the  average  and  is  worth  propagating. 

The  ambarella  is  an  erect,  stately,  semi-deciduous  tree, 
usually  stiff  in  appearance.  It  reaches  a  maximum  height  of 
60  feet.  The  leaves  are  large,  commonly  8  to  12  inches  long ; 
the  leaflets,  11  to  23  in  number,  are  oval  to  oblong  in  outline, 
2\  to  3  inches  in  length,  remotely  serrate,  and  acuminate  at  the 
apex.  Like  those  of  the  imbu,  they  are  equilateral  or  nearly  so. 
The  small  whitish  flowers  are  produced  in  large  loose  panicles 
8  to  12  inches  in  length. 

The  fruit  is  oval  or  slightly  obovoid  in  form,  2  to  3  inches  long, 
and  orange-yellow  in  color.  The  skin  is  as  thick  as  that  of  the 
mango,  but  tougher.  The  flesh  is  firm,  very  juicy,  and  of  pale 
yellow  color.  Its  subacid  flavor  suggests  that  of  the  apple; 
sometimes,  however,  it  is  resinous  or  pungent.  The  seed  is 
large,  oval,  1  inch  in  length,  covered  with  stiff  spines  or  bristles 
to  which  the  surrounding  flesh  clings  tenaciously. 

Although  larger  than  those  of  other  species  of  Spondias,  the 
fruits  of  the  ambarella  are  not  usually  so  pleasantly  flavored 
as  are  choice  imbus  or  the  best  red  mombins  (see  below). 
They  are  produced  in  long  pendent  clusters  of  two  to  ten.  In 
Florida  they  ripen  during  the  winter :  in  Tahiti  the  season  is 
said  to  be  May  to  July,  and  in  Hawaii  November  to  April. 
The  composition  of  the  fruit,  according  to  an  analysis  by  Alice 
R.  Thompson  of  Hawaii,  is  as  follows :  Total  solids  14.53  per 


156     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

cent,  ash  0.44  per  cent,  acids  0.47  per  cent,  protein  0.50  per 
cent,  total  sugars  10. .54  per  cent,  fat  0.28  per  cent,  and  fiber 
0.85  per  cent. 

Ambarella  is  the  Sinhalese  name  used  in  Ceylon,  and  is 
preferred  as  being  more  euphonious  and  attractive  than  the 
name  Otaheite-apple.  The  latter  term  is  current  in  some  of 
the  British  colonies,  but  is  sometimes  applied  also  to  a  different 
fruit,  the  ohia.  Jew-plum  is  another  name  for  the  ambarella, 
used  in  Jamaica.  The  French  call  the  fruit  pomme  Cythere. 
In  Polynesia  its  name  is  m  or  em,  the  former  word  (spelled  wi) 
being  used  in  Hawaii.  In  Brazil  the  Portuguese  name  is 
cajd-manga.  Spondias  dulcis  Forst.  is  a  botanical  synonym  of 
S.  cytherea  Sonnerat. 

The  tree  is  considered  indigenous  in  Polynesia.  It  was 
brought  to  Jamaica  in  1782,  and  again  in  1792  (on  this  second 
occasion  by  Captain  Bligh,  who  introduced  the  breadfruit  into 
the  West  Indies  from  Tahiti).  It  has  not  become  popular  in 
Cuba,  nor  is  it  commonly  grown  on  the  mainland  of  South 
America,  with  the  exception  of  certain  parts  of  Brazil.  In  South 
Florida  it  is  successful  as  far  north  as  Palm  Beach.  No  trees 
are  known  to  have  reached  fruiting  size  in  California.  The 
winters  there  are  probably  too  cool  for  it. 

While  the  tree  thrives  best  on  deep  rich  soils,  it  has  been 
successful  in  Florida  (though  not  reaching  large  size)  upon 
shallow  sandy  land.  Thomas  Firminger  says  that  the  seeds  do 
not  germinate  readily,  and  that  plants  "  are  usually  obtained  by 
grafting  upon  seedlings  of  S.  mangifera."  P.  J.  Wester  has 
found  that  the  species  can  be  shield-budded  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  avocado;  he  says,  "Use  nonpetioled,  slender,  mature, 
but  green  and  smooth  budwood ;  cut  large  buds  with  ample 
wood-shield,  1J  to  If  inches  long ;  insert  the  buds  in  the  stock 
at  a  point  of  approximately  the  same  age  and  appearance  as 
the  cion." 

Early  travelers  who  visited  Polynesia  spoke  of  this  fruit  in 


RELATIVES   OF   THE   MANGO  157 

high  terms.  More  recently,  however,  it  has  been  likened  to  a 
"very  bad  mango,"  and  several  writers  have  adjudged  that  it 
did  not  merit  cultivation.  Much  depends  on  the  variety ;  while 
the  average  may  be  poor,  an  occasional  one  is  good.  Only 
superior  kinds  propagated  by  some  vegetative  means  should  be 
planted.  As  yet  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  find  the  best 
varieties  and  establish  them  as  horticultural  forms. 

THE  RED  MOMBIN  (Plate  VII) 
(Spondias  Mombin,  L.) 

No  other  species  of  Spondias  is  so  extensively  used  in  tropical 
America  as  this.  In  many  parts  of  Mexico  and  Central  America 
it  is  a  fruit  of  the  first  importance.  It  occurs  in  a  wide  range 
of  seedling  races  or  forms,  and  is  capable  of  great  improvement 
by  selection  and  vegetative  propagation.  While  scarcely  so 
good  as  the  imbu,  the  better  varieties  are  pleasantly  flavored 
and  attractive  in  appearance. 

The  red  mombin  is  a  small  tree,  often  spreading  in  habit. 
The  trunk  is  thick  and  the  branches  are  stout  and  stiff.  Its 
native  home  is  tropical  America,  where  it  reaches  a  maximum 
height  of  about  25  feet.  The  leaves  are  5  to  8  inches  long, 
with  16  to  21  oblong-elliptic,  oblique,  subserrate  leaflets  1 
inch  to  1^  inches  in  length.  The  purplish  maroon  flowers  are 
produced  in  small  unbranched  racemes  about  £  inch  long. 

The  fruits,  borne  singly  or  in  clusters  of  two  or  three,  are 
quite  variable  in  size  and  form.  Commonly  they  are  oval  or 
roundish,  but  they  may  be  oblong,  obovoid,  or  somewhat  pyri- 
form.  They  range  from  1  to  2  inches  in  length,  and  from  yellow 
to  deep  red  in  color.  The  seed  is  oblong,  ^  to  J  inch  long,  and 
rough  on  the  surface.  The  season  of  ripening  in  most  parts  of 
tropical  America  is  August  to  November. 

In  most  Spanish-speaking  countries  this  species  is  known  as 
cimela  (plum),  a  name  which  has  been  corrupted  in  the  Philip- 


158     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

pines  to  siniguelas.  In  parts  of  Mexico  and  in  Guatemala  it  is 
known  by  the  Aztec  name  jocote  (xocotl) .  The  common  name 
in  the  French  colonies  is  prunier  d'Espagne,  prunier  rouge,  and 
mombin  rouge,  and  in  the  British  colonies  it  is  sometimes  called 
Spanish-plum.  Spondias  purpurea,  L.  is  a  botanical  synonym 
of  S.  Mombin,  L. 

J.  N.  Rose1  describes  a  number  of  different  forms  observed  in 
Mexico.  These  races  (perhaps  species  in  some  instances) 
deserve  further  study. 

The  red  mombin  is  abundant  in  Mexico  and  Central  America 
from  sea-level  up  to  elevations  of  5000  or  6000  feet.  The  value 
of  the  annual  crop  in  Mexico  is  estimated  at  more  than  $70,000. 
The  fruit  may  be  eaten  fresh  or  may  be  boiled  and  dried,  in  which 
latter  condition  it  can  be  kept  for  several  months.  When  fresh 
it  has  a  subacid  spicy  flavor  somewhat  resembling  that  of  the 
cashew,  but  less  aromatic.  Some  varieties  are  sour,  and  others 
have  very  little  flesh ;  the  best  are  pleasantly  flavored  and  have 
about  the  same  amount  of  flesh  and  seed  as  a  very  large  olive. 

In  Cuba  several  seedling  races  are  grown.  They  are  usually 
distinguished  as  ciruela  roja,  ciruela  amarilla,  and  so  on.  In 
Brazil  the  species  appears  to  be  little  known.  It  is  successfully 
cultivated  in  south  Florida,  as  far  north  as  Palm  Beach  or 
perhaps  farther.  Varieties  from  high  elevations  in  tropical 
America  should  prove  slightly  hardier  than  those  from  the 
seacoast.  No  trees  have  been  grown  to  fruiting  age  in  Cali- 
fornia, so  far  as  is  known.  In  favorable  situations  they  might 
succeed  there  if  given  protection  during  the  first  few  winters. 

The  tree  is  semi-deciduous.  The  leaves  fall  toward  the  end 
of  the  cool  season  and  are  soon  replaced  by  new  ones. 

The  character  of  the  soil  does  not  seem  to  be  important. 
Good  trees  can  be  found  growing  on  shallow  sandy  land,  on 
gravel,  and  on  heavy  clay  loam.  A  rich,  moist,  fairly  heavy 

1  The  Useful  Plants  of  Mexico,  contributions  from  the  U.  S.  Nat. 
Herbarium,  V,  4,  1899. 


RELATIVES  OF   THE   MANGO  159 

loam  perhaps  suits  it  best.  Cuttings  take  root  so  readily  that 
large  limbs,  cut  and  inserted  in  the  ground  as  fenceposts,  will 
often  develop  into  flourishing  trees.  P.  J.  Wester  recommends 
that  cuttings  20  to  30  inches  long,  of  the  previous  season's  growth 
(or  even  older  wood)  should  be  set  in  the  ground  to  a  depth  of 
about  12  inches,  in  the  positions  which  the  trees  are  to  occupy 
permanently.  The  rainy  season  is  the  best  time  to  do  this. 
The  trees  should  stand  about  25  feet  apart,  unless  the  soil  be 
very  poor,  in  which  case  20  feet  will  be  sufficient.  No  horti- 
cultural varieties  have  as  yet  been  established.  By  selecting 
from  the  existing  seedlings  in  tropical  America,  many  good 
ones  could  be  obtained. 

THE  YELLOW  MOMBIN 
(Spondias  lutea,  L.) 

This  species  is  generally  considered  inferior  in  quality  to  the 
red  mombin.  Its  cultivation  is  much  less  extensive,  but  it 
occurs  abundantly  as  a  wild  tree  in  many  tropical  regions.  The 
name  hog-plum,  which  has  been  applied  to  it  in  the  West  Indies, 
has  perhaps  given  it  a  lower  reputation  than  it  merits,  but  the 
term  does  not,  as  Cook  and  Collins  point  out,  cast  any  reflection 
on  the  character  of  the  fruit,  inasmuch  as  it  refers  only  to  the 
fact  that  hogs  are  extremely  fond  of  it,  and  fatten  on  the  fruit 
which  falls  to  the  ground  from  wild  trees  in  the  forest. 

The  tree  is  tall  and  stately  in  appearance,  and  under  favorable 
conditions  it  may  reach  60  feet  in  height.  The  leaves  are  8  to 
12  inches  long,  composed  of  7  to  17  ovate-lanceolate  or  lanceolate- 
serrulate  leaflets,  oblique  at  the  base  and  2£  to  4  inches  in 
length.  The  yellowish  white  flowers  are  borne  in  loose  panicles 
6  to  12  inches  long.  The  fruit  is  ovoid,  commonly  1  inch  in 
length,  bright  yellow,  with  thin  skin,  and  an  oblong  seed  of 
relatively  large  size.  The  flesh  is  yellow,  very  soft  and  juicy, 
and  of  subacid,  rather  pungent  flavor.  Many  varieties  are 


160     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

scarcely  pleasant  to  the  taste,  others  are  sweet  and  agreeable. 
The  fruit  is  usually  eaten  fresh.  Its  composition,  according 
to  an  analysis  by  Alice  R.  Thompson  of  Hawaii,  is  as  follows : 
Total  solids  11. 47 per  cent, ash  0.65  per  cent, acids  0.98  percent, 
protein  1.37  per  cent,  total  sugars  9.41  per  cent,  fat  0.56  per 
cent,  and  fiber  1.16  per  cent. 

The  species  is  considered  to  be  cosmopolitan  in  the  tropics. 
In  Spanish-speaking  countries  it  is  called  jobo,  while  in  Brazil 
it  is  known  as  cajd.  In  the  French  colonies  the  names  mombin 
jaune  and  prune  Myrobalan  are  current.  S.  Mombin,  Jacq. 
(not  L.)  is  a  botanical  synonym  of  S.  lutea,  L. 

Occasional  trees  are  seen  in  cultivation  throughout  tropical 
America.  Cook  and  Collins  report  that  it  is  planted  extensively 
in  Porto  Rico.  In  south  Florida  it  succeeds,  but  has  never 
become  common.  In  California  no  trees  of  fruiting  age  are 
known.  The  species  is  rather  susceptible  to  frost ;  it  is  found 
in  the  tropics  only  at  low  elevations,  and  probably  will  not 
withstand  temperatures  much  below  freezing  point,  particularly 
when  young. 

The  method  of  propagation  is  the  same  as  that  used  for  the 
red  mombin  (see  above),  i.e.,  by  cuttings  of  mature  wood. 


CHAPTER  V 
THE   ANNONACEOUS   FRUITS 

THE  annonas  are  tropical  fruits  composed  of  more  or  less 
coherent  fleshy  carpels  or  parts.  More  than  50  species  are 
known,  several  of  which  are  widely  cultivated  for  their  fruits. 
The  family  comprises  40  to  50  genera.  One  of  them,  Asimina,  is 
native  in  temperate  North  America,  and  one  species  (Asimina 
triloba,  known  also  as  papaw  but  very  different  from  the  papaya) 
occurs  as  far  north  as  New  York  and  Michigan. 

THE  CHERIMOYA  (Plate  VIII) 
(Annona  Cherimola,  Mill.) 

" Deliciousness  itself"  is  the  phrase  Mark  Twain  used  to 
characterize  the  cherimoya.  Sir  Clements  Markham  quotes 
an  even  more  flattering  description  : 

"The  pineapple,  the  mangosteen,  and  the  cherimoya,"  says 
Dr.  Seemann,  "  are  considered  the  finest  fruits  in  the  world.  I 
have  tasted  them  in  those  localities  in  which  they  are  supposed 
to  attain  their  highest  perfection,  —  the  pineapple  in  Guayaquil, 
the  mangosteen  in  the  Indian  Archipelago,  and  the  cherimoya 
on  the  slopes  of  the  Andes,  —  and  if  I  were  called  upon  to  act 
the  part  of  a  Paris  I  would  without  hesitation  assign  the  apple 
to  the  cherimoya.  Its  taste,  indeed,  surpasses  that  of  every 
other  fruit,  and  Haenke  was  quite  right  when  he  called  it  the 
masterpiece  of  Nature." 

The  cherimoya  is  essentially  a  dessert  fruit,  and  as  such  it 
certainly  has  few  equals.  Although  its  native  home  is  close 
M  161 


162     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

to  the  equator,  it  is  not  strictly  tropical  as  regards  its  require- 
ments, being,  in  fact,  a  subtropical  fruit,  and  attaining  perfec- 
tion only  where  the  climate  is  cool  and  relatively  dry.  At  home 
it  grows  on  plateaux  and  in  mountain  valleys  where  proximity 
to  the  equator  is  offset  by  elevation,  with  the  result  that  the 
climate  is  as  cool  as  that  of  regions  hundreds  of  miles  to  the 
north  or  south. 

Commercial  cultivation  of  the  cherimoya  has  been  under- 
taken in  a  few  places.  This  fruit  has  not,  however,  achieved 
the  commercial  prominence  which  it  merits,  and  which  it  seems 
destined  some  day  to  receive. 

That  it  should  be  unknown  in  most  northern  markets,  not- 
withstanding that  it  grows  as  readily  in  many  parts  of  the 
tropics  and  sub  tropics  as  the  avocado,  can  only  be  due  to  the 
inferiority  of  the  varieties  which  have  been  disseminated,  to 
tardiness  in  utilizing  vegetative  means  of  propagation,  and  to 
insufficient  attention  to  the  cultural  requirements  of  the  tree. 
The  best  seedling  varieties  must  be  brought  to  light,  they  must 
be  propagated  by  budding  or  grafting,  and  a  careful  study 
made  of  pollination,  pruning,  fertilization  of  the  soil,  and  other 
cultural  details  as  yet  imperfectly  understood.  There  is  no 
reason  why,  when  this  has  been  done,  cherimoya  culture  should 
not  become  an  important  horticultural  industry  in  many 
regions.  Experience  in  exporting  the  fruit  from  Madeira  to 
London,  and  from  Mexico  to  the  United  States,  has  shown  that 
it  can  be  shipped  without  difficulty.  The  demand  for  it  in 
northern  markets,  once  a  regular  supply  is  available,  is  certain 
to  be  keen. 

The  cherimoya  is  a  small,  erect  or  somewhat  spreading  tree, 
rarely  growing  to  more  than  25  feet  high ;  on  poor  soils  it  may 
not  reach  more  than  15  feet.  The  young  growth  is  grayish  and 
softly  pubescent.  The  size  of  the  leaves  varies  in  different 
varieties;  in  some  they  are  4  to  6  inches  long,  in  others  10 
inches.  In  California  a  variety  (originally  from  Tenerife, 


THE  ANNONACEOUS  FRUITS  163 

Canary  Islands)  with  unusually  large  leaves  has  been  listed  by 
nurserymen  under  the  name  Annona  macrocarpa.  In  form  the 
leaves  are  ovate  to  ovate-lanceolate,  sometimes  obovate  or 
elliptic ;  obtuse  or  obtusely  acuminate  at  the  apex,  rounded  at 
the  base.  The  upper  surface  is  sparsely  hairy,  the  lower  vel- 
vety tomentose.  The  fragrant  flowers  are  about  an  inch  long, 
solitary  or  sometimes  two  or  three  together,  on  short  nodding 
peduncles  set  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  The  three  exterior 
petals  are  oblong-linear  in  form,  greenish  outside  and  pale 
yellow  or  whitish  within ;  the  inner  three  are  minute  and  scale- 
like,  and  ovate  or  triangular  in  outline.  As  in  other  species 
of  Annona,  the  stamens  and  pistils  are  numerous,  crowded 
together  on  the  fleshy  receptacle. 

The  fruit  is  of  the  kind  known  technically  as  a  syncarpium. 
It  is  formed  of  numerous  carpels  fused  with  the  fleshy  receptacle. 
It  may  be  heart-shaped,  conical,  oval,  or  somewhat  irregular  in 
form.  In  weight  it  ranges  from  a  few  ounces  to  five  pounds. 
Sixteen-pound  cherimoyas  have  been  reported,  but  it  is  doubt- 
ful whether  they  ever  existed  in  reality.  The  surface  of  the  fruit 
in  some  varieties  is  smooth ;  in  others  it  is  covered  writh  small 
conical  protuberances.  It  is  light  green  in  color.  The  skin 
is  very  thin  and  delicate,  making  it  necessary  to  handle  the  ripe 
fruit  with  care  to  avoid  bruising  it.  The  flesh  is  white,  melting 
in  texture,  and  moderately  juicy.  Numerous  brown  seeds,  the 
size  and  shape  of  a  bean,  are  embedded  in  it.  The  flavor  is 
subacid,  delicate,  suggestive  of  the  pineapple  and  the  banana. 

The  cherimoya  is  sometimes  confused  with  other  species  of 
Annona.  W.  E.  Safford,1  who  has  studied  the  botany  of  this 
genus  thoroughly,  writes : 

"  For  centuries  the  cherimoya  has  been  cultivated  and  several 

distinct  varieties  have  resulted.     One  of  these  has  smooth  fruit, 

devoid  of  protuberances,  which  has  been  confused  with  the 

inferior  fruit  of  both  Annona  glabra  and  A.  reticulata.     The 

1  In  Bailey,  Standard  Cyclopedia  of  Horticulture. 


164    MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

last  two  species,  however,  are  easily  distinguished  by  their  leaves 
and  flowers ;  Annona  glabra,  commonly  known  as  the  alligator 
apple  or  mangrove  annona,  having  glossy  laurel-like  leaves 
and  globose  flowers  with  six  ovate  petals,  and  A.  reticulata 
having  long  narrow  glabrate  leaves  devoid  of  the  velvety  lining 
which  characterizes  those  of  the  cherimoya." 

Annona  Cherimola,  Mill,  is  the  Annona  tripetala  of  Aiton; 
the  plant  which  has  been  offered  in  California  under  the  name 
A.  suavissima  is  a  horticultural  form  of  A.  Cherimola.  (The 
orthography  Anona  Cherimolia  was  used  until  Safford  showed 
that  it  is  incorrect.) 

The  country  of  origin  of  the  cherimoya  remains  somewhat  in 
doubt.  Alphonse  DeCandolle,  after  weighing  all  the  available 
evidence,  said,  "  I  consider  it  most  probable  that  the  species  is 
indigenous  in  Ecuador,  and  perhaps  in  the  neighboring  part  of 
Peru."  The  presence  of  the  fruit  in  Mexico  and  Central  America 
since  an  early  day  has  led  other  botanists  to  assume  that  it 
might  also  be  indigenous  in  the  latter  countries.  Recently 
Safford  has  re-sifted  the  evidence  and  has  reached  the  conclusion 
that  "  De-Candolle  is  in  all  probability  correct  in  attributing  it 
to  the  mountains  of  Ecuador  and  Peru.  The  common  name 
which  it  bears,  even  in  Mexico,  is  of  Quichua  origin  .  .  . 
and  terra-cotta  vases  modeled  from  cherimoya  fruits  have  been 
dug  up  repeatedly  from  prehistoric  graves  in  Peru." 

The  name  by  which  this  fruit  is  known  in  Spanish-speaking 
countries,  cherimoya  or  chirimoya,  is  derived  (as  mentioned 
above,  quoting  Safford)  from  the  Peruvian  name  chirimuya, 
signifying  cold  seeds.  The  English  frequently  spell  the  word 
cherimoyer.  The  name  custard-apple  is  often-  used  in  the 
British  colonies;  its  application  is  not  confined,  however,  to 
this  one  species,  but  extends  to  other  annonas.  The  French 
use  the  name  cherimolier,  or  more  frequently  anone.  The  name 
cherimoya  or  one  of  its  variants  is  sometimes  applied  to  other 
species  of  Annona. 


THE  ANNONACEOUS  FRUITS  165 

From  its  habitat  in  South  America,  the  cherimoya  early  spread 
northward  into  Mexico;  much  later  it  passed  into  the  West 
Indies,  the  southern  part  of  South  America,  and  across  the  seas 
to  the  islands  near  the  African  coast,  to  the  Mediterranean 
region,  and  to  India,  Polynesia,  and  Africa. 

At  present  it  is  naturalized  in  many  parts  of  Mexico  and 
Central  America.  Throughout  this  region  it  occurs  most 
abundantly  at  elevations  of  3000  to  6000  feet,  occasionally 
ascending  (in  Guatemala)  to  8000  feet.  On  the  seacoast  it  is 
not  successful  as  a  fruit-tree,  and  is  rarely  grown.  The  regions 
which  produce  the  finest  cherimoyas  in  Mexico  lie  at  elevations 
of  5000  to  6000  feet  and  are  characterized  by  comparatively 
dry  cool  climates.  Excellent  cherimoyas  are  grown  at  Queretaro 
and  in  the  vicinity  of  Guadalajara.  The  fruit  is  highly  esteemed  « 
in  the  markets  of  Mexico  City,  where  it  sells  at  high  prices. 
While  not  grown  commercially  on  a  scale  comparable  with 
the  avocado,  its  culture  in  certain  regions  is  important,  and 
regular  shipments  are  made  to  the  principal  markets  of  the 
country. 

In  Jamaica,  where  the  cherimoya  was  introduced  by  Hinton 
East  in  1785,  there  are  now  many  trees  in  the  mountainous 
parts  of  the  island.  The  fruit  is  highly  esteemed  in  the  markets 
of  Kingston.  In  Cuba  it  is  almost  unknown.  There  are  a 
few  trees  in  Oriente  Province  and  perhaps  elsewhere,  but  the 
markets  of  Habana  are  not  familiar  with  it.  It  may  be  men- 
tioned that  Annona  reticulata  is  often  called  cherimoya  in 
Cuba,  which  has  led  some  writers  to  assume  wrongly  that  the 
true  cherimoya  is  commonly  cultivated  in  the  island. 

In  Argentina,  cherimoya  culture  is  conducted  commercially 
in  several  places,  notably  the  Campo  Santo  district  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Salta.  The  fruit  is  shipped  to  Buenos  Aires,  where  it  is 
marketed  at  very  profitable  prices.  In  Brazil  it  is  not  com- 
monly grown;  in  fact  it  is  not  known  in  most  parts  of  the 
Republic. 


166     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

In  1897  M.  Grabham  wrote  a  short  article  in  the  Journal  of 
the  Jamaica  Agricultural  Society  on  the  cultivation  of  the 
cherimoya  in  Madeira.  He  asserted  that  "  many  of  the  estates 
on  the  warm  southern  slopes  of  the  island,  formerly  covered  with 
vineyards,  have  now  been  systematically  planted  with  the 
cherimoya"  and  went  on  to  state  that  "  the  fruits  vary  in  weight 
between  three  and  eight  pounds,  exceptionally  large  ones  may 
reach  16  pounds  and  over."  This  article,  which  has  been 
widely  quoted,  has  been  responsible  for  the  current  belief  that 
cherimoya  culture  in  Madeira  is  more  extensive  than  in  any 
other  part  of  the  world,  and  that  exceptionally  fine  varieties 
have  been  developed. 

Charles  H.  Gable,  an  American  entomologist  and  horti- 
culturist who  worked  in  the  island  during  1913  and  1914,  has 
dispelled  these  illusions.  Gable  writes : 

"  I  found  the  cherimoya  industry  in  Madeira  very  primitive  indeed. 
No  effort  has  been  made  to  commercialize  the  growing  of  this  fruit. 
Most  of  the  trees  are  volunteers  which  have  sprung  up  from  dropped 
seeds,  or  else  they  have  been  planted  for  shade,  with  perhaps  a  vague 
notion  that  they  might  some  day  produce  fruit.  ...  I  do  not  know 
any  one  in  Madeira  (and  I  have  been  over  the  entire  island)  who  has 
more  than  &  dozen  trees  in  bearing,  and  only  a  few  have  that  many. 
Most  of  the  important  islanders  have  at  least  one  tree.  ...  At 
least  95  per  cent  of  all  those  on  the  island  are  seedlings.  Occasionally 
old  trees  are  top-worked  by  a  method  of  cleft-grafting,  but  this  is  not 
highly  successful.  .  .  .  There  is  no  uniformity  in  the  quality  of  the 
fruits.  Every  gradation  is  found  between  smooth-surfaced  and  very 
rough  fruits.  In  those  which  resemble  each  other  externally  there 
may  be  great  differences  in  quality,  acidity,  number  of  seeds,  and 
other  characteristics.  I  never  got  so  I  felt  competent  to  pick  out  a 
good  fruit  in  the  market.  .  .  .  The  rough  type  attains  the  greatest 
size.  The  largest  specimen  I  was  able  to  find  weighed  three  and  a  half 
pounds.  ...  I  hesitate  to  make  an  estimate,  but  I  do  not  believe 
more  than  a  thousand  dozen  fruits  are  exported  from  the  island  in  a 
year.  .  .  .  The  trees  receive  no  intentional  cultivation.  Vegetables 
are  often  planted  beneath  them.  A  species  of  scale  insect  and  the 
mealy  bug  infest  many  of  them.  .  .  .  The  trees  do  not  seem  to  do 
well  above  800  feet  elevation.  The  ripening  season  is  from  the  last 
of  November  until  the  first  of  February." 


THE  ANNONACEOUS  FRUITS  167 

In  the  Canary  Islands  the  cherimoya  is  not  cultivated  com- 
mercially, but  it  is  grown  on  a  limited  scale.  Georges  V.  Perez 
writes:  "Ever  since  I  can  remember  it  has  been  cultivated 
in  the  gardens  of  Orotava  as  a  delicious  and  perhaps  unequalled 
tropical  fruit." 

In  the  Mediterranean  region  there  are  several  localities  in 
which  it  can  be  grown  successfully.  A.  Robertson-Prosch- 
owsky ,  who  has  experimented  with  many  tropical  and  subtropical 
plants  at  Nice,  France,  finds  that  the  fruits,  if  caught  by  cold 
weather  before  they  mature,  do  not  ripen  perfectly.  If,  how- 
ever, the  winter  is  mild  and  warm  they  may  mature  satisfac- 
torily, even  if  very  late.  Robertson-Proschowsky  believes  that 
the  cherimoya  is  well  suited  for  cultivation  in  sheltered  spots 
along  the  Cote  d'Azur  (French  Riviera),  and  he  recommends 
it  as  a  fruit  worthy  of  serious  attention  in  that  region. 

It  is  cultivated  on  a  limited  scale  in  southern  Spain  and  in 
Sicily.  L.  Trabut 1  of  Algiers  writes:  "Lovers  of  the  anona 
will  find  in  the  markets  of  Algiers,  during  November  and  Decem- 
ber of  each  year,  a  few  good  fruits  which  are  sold  at  30  centimes 
to  1  franc  each.  These  fruits  come  from  gardens  along  the 
western  coast,  where  there  are  some  magnificent  trees."  He 
further  says :  "  It  seems  evident  that  the  moment  has  come 
to  extend  cherimoya  culture.  It  is  not  more  difficult  than 
orange  culture,  and  at  present  promises  to  be  more  remunera- 
tive." Trabut  recommends  that  the  tree  be  planted  in  Algeria 
on  the  coast  only,  since  the  climate  of  the  interior  is  too  cold. 

The  cherimoya  has  been  planted  in  several  parts  of  India 
but  has  not  become  a  common  fruit  in  that  country.  H.  F. 
Macmillan  says  that  it  is  "  now  cultivated  in  many  up-country 
gardens  in  Ceylon."  It  was  introduced  into  the  latter  island 
as  late  as  1880.  In  parts  of  Queensland,  Australia,  it  is  success- 
fully grown. 

In  Hawaii  it  has  become  well  established.  Vaughan  Mac- 
1  Bull.  24,  Service  Botanique,  Algeria. 


168     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

Caughey 1  says :  "  It  was  introduced  into  the  Hawaiian  Islands 
in  very  early  times,  and  is  now  naturalized,  particularly  in  cer- 
tain parts  of  the  Kona  and  Ka-u  districts  on  the  island  of 
Hawaii."  He  adds  that  cherimoyas  are  rarely  seen  in  the 
markets  of  Honolulu,  but  that  trees  are  found  in  gardens 
throughout  the  city. 

Nowhere  in  Florida  is  the  cherimoya  a  common  fruit.  Trees 
in  limited  numbers  have  been  planted  in  several  parts  of  the 
state,  notably  in  the  Miami  region.  While  they  grow  vigorously 
they  do  not  fruit  so  freely,  nor  is  the  fruit  of  such  good  quality, 
as  in  many  other  countries.  It  is  probable  that  the  climate 
of  south  Florida  is  too  tropical  for  this  species. 

As  regards  California,  it  is  believed  that  the  first  cherimoyas 
planted  in  the  state  were  brought  from  Mexico  by  R.  B.  Ord  of 
Santa  Barbara  in  1871.  A  few  years  later  Jacob  Miller  planted 
a  small  grove  on  his  place  at  Hollywood,  near  Los  Angeles.  In 
the  relatively  short  time  since  these  first  plantings  were  made, 
the  cherimoya  has  become  scattered  throughout  southern 
California,  from  Santa  Barbara  to  San  Diego.  The  climate 
and  soil  of  the  foothill  regions  seem  to  be  peculiarly  suited  to  it. 
A  few  commercial  plantings  have  been  made,  notably  at  Holly- 
wood, but  since  they  are  composed  entirely  of  seedlings  they 
have  not  proved  remunerative.  Had  budded  trees  of  desirable 
varieties  been  planted,  the  results  would  have  been  different. 
In  the  largest  commercial  planting,  that  of  A.  Z.  Taft  at  Holly- 
wood, one  seedling,  more  productive  than  the  remainder,  pro- 
duced one  year  about  one-fourth  the  entire  crop  of  the  grove. 
Out  of  eighty  trees  comprised  in  the  planting,  only  five  pro- 
duced more  than  a  few  fruits.  By  top- working  the  unproduc- 
tive trees  to  a  productive  and  otherwise  desirable  variety,  they 
could  have  been  made  valuable. 

For  sheltered  situations  throughout  the  foothill  tracts  of 
southern  California,  cherimoya  culture  holds  great  promise. 
1  Torreya,  May,  1917. 


THE  ANNONACEOUS  FRUITS  169 

As  soon  as  budded  or  grafted  trees  of  good  varieties  are  avail- 
able, many  small  orchards  should  be  established  quickly. 

The  cherimoya  is  commonly  eaten  fresh  :  rarely  is  it  used  in 
any  way  except  as  a  dessert  fruit.  Alice  R.  Thompson,  who  has 
analyzed  the  fresh  fruit  in  Hawaii,  finds  that  it  contains  :  Total 
solids,  33.81  per  cent,  ash  0.66  per  cent,  acids  0.06  per  cent, 
protein  1.83  per  cent,  total  sugars  18.41  per  cent,  fat  0.14  per 
cent,  and  fiber  4.29.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  sugar-content 
is  high,  while  that  of  acids  is  low.  The  percentage  of  protein  is 
higher  than  in  many  other  fruits. 

Cultivation. 

The  climatic  requirements  of  the  cherimoya  have  been  indi- 
cated in  the  discussion  of  the  regions  in  which  it  is  cultivated. 
It  is  essentially  a  subtropical  fruit,  and  in  the  tropics  succeeds 
only  at  elevations  sufficiently  great  to  temper  the  heat.  It 
thrives  best  in  regions  where  the  climate  is  relatively  dry.  In 
the  southern  part  of  Guatemala,  where  the  annual  rainfall  is 
about  50  inches  but  where  there  is  a  long  dry  season,  it  is  exten- 
sively grown  and  the  fruit  is  of  excellent  quality;  but  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  same  country,  where  the  rainfall  is  nearly 
100  inches,  distributed  throughout  the  year,  the  tree  cannot 
be  grown  successfully.  In  the  highlands  of  Mexico  it  is  best 
suited  where  the  climate  is  dry,  free  from  extremes  both  of  heat 
and  cold,  and  where  abundant  water  is  available  for  irrigating. 
The  climate  of  southern  California,  except  in  sections  subject 
to  severe  frosts,  seems  almost  ideal  for  it.  In  many  places  frost 
is  the  limiting  factor,  for  the  cherimoya,  while  the  hardiest  of 
its  genus,  does  not  endure  temperatures  lower  than  26°  or  27° 
above  zero  without  serious  injury.  Young  plants  will,  of  course, 
be  hurt  by  mild  frosts  which  mature  trees  would  ignore ;  in  fact, 
temperatures  lower  than  29°  or  30°  are  likely  to  injure  them. 

Like  other  annonas,  the  cherimoya  prefers  a  rich  loamy  soil. 
It  can  be  grown,  however,  on  soils  of  many  different  types. 


170     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

In  California  it  has  done  well  on  heavy  clay  (almost  adobe), 
while  in  Florida  it  makes  satisfactory  growth  on  shallow  sandy 
soils.  H.  F.  Schultz  considers  the  ideal  soil  to  be  a  fairly  rich, 
loose  sandy  loam,  underlaid  with  gravel  at  a  depth  of  two  to 
three  feet.  He  says :  "  Some  of  the  best  Campo  Santo  and 
Betania  (Argentina)  groves  are  located  on  such  land,  which  is 
furthermore  characterized  by  a  liberal  outcropping  of  scattered 
rocks."  Carlos  Werckle  states  that  the  tree  does  well  in  Costa 
Rica  on  "stony  cliffs. "  He  reports  that  it  is  more  productive 
under  these  conditions  than  when  grown  on  richer  soil,  and  him- 
self considers  it  partial  to  mountain  slopes  on  which  there  is 
much  limestone  rock. 

Experience  in  California  has  shown  that  the  cherimoya 
requires  cultural  treatment  similar  to  that  given  the  citrus 
fruits.  Budded  trees  should  be  planted  in  orchard  form  about 
20  to  24  feet  apart;  seedlings  about  30  feet  apart,  since  they 
grow  to  larger  size.  Irrigations,  followed  by  thorough  culti- 
vation of  the  soil,  are  given  at  intervals  of  two  weeks  to  one 
month.  While  the  trees  are  young,  more  frequent  irrigations 
are  necessary.  In  Argentina,  according  to  H.  F.  Schultz,  it  is 
the  custom  to  irrigate  the  trees  at  intervals  of  six  to  twelve 
days.  In  Mexico  two  weeks  is  considered  the  proper  interval. 

In  California,  stable  manure  has  been  used  for  young  trees 
with  excellent  results,  and  occasionally  for  bearing  groves. 
Little  attention  has  been  devoted  to  the  subject ;  hence  it  is  not 
possible  to  give  specific  directions  for  the  use  of  fertilizers.  A 
writer  in  the  Queensland  Agricultural  Journal  recommends  that 
each  tree  be  given  annually  1  to  3  pounds  of  superphosphate, 
2  to  6  pounds  of  meat-works  manure  with  blood,  and  1  to  2 
pounds  of  sulfate  of  potash. 

The  pruning  of  cherimoyas  has  received  little  attention  as 
yet  in  the  United  States.  In  Argentina  it  is  considered  that 
trees  which  are  kept  low  and  compact  are  both  more  precocious 
and  longer  lived  than  those  which  are  tall  and  open  in  habit. 


THE  ANNONACEOUS  FRUITS  171 

In  Guatemala  the  most  productive  trees  are  usually  those 
which  have  been  cut  back  heavily.  It  is  possible  that  fruitful- 
ness  can  be  increased  by  severe  pruning.  The  matter  deserves 
careful  investigation.  The  tree  being  semi-deciduous,  pruning 
should  be  done  after  the  leaves  have  dropped  and  before  the 
new  foliage  makes  its  appearance. 

Propagation. 

In  many  regions  seed-propagation  is  the  only  method  which 
has  been  used  with  this  plant.  In  the  United  States,  in  Madeira, 
in  Algeria,  and  in  the  Philippines,  cherimoyas  have  been  grafted 
and  budded  successfully;  one  or  the  other  of  these  methods 
should  be  employed  to  perpetuate  choice  varieties. 

If  kept  dry  the  seeds  will  retain  their  viability  several  years. 
Given  warm  weather  or  planted  under  glass,  they  will  germinate 
in  a  few  weeks.  Under  glass  they  may  be  sown  at  any  time  of 
the  year ;  if  in  open  ground,  they  should  be  planted  only  in  the 
warm  season.  Seeds  should  be  sown  in  flats  of  light  porous 
soil  containing  an  abundance  of  humus,  and  should  be  covered 
to  a  depth  of  not  more  than  f  inch.  When  the  young  plants 
are  three  or  four  inches  high,  they  may  be  transferred  into  three- 
inch  pots.  Good  drainage  must  be  provided,  and  they  should 
not  be  watered  too  copiously.  When  eight  inches  high  they 
may  be  shifted  into  larger  pots,  or  set  out  in  the  open  ground. 
In  the  latter  case,  they  must  have  careful  attention,  and,  pref- 
erably, shade,  until  they  have  become  well  established. 

For  stock-plants  on  which  to  bud  or  graft  the  cherimoya, 
several  species  of  Annona  have  been  employed.  A.  reticulata, 
A.  glabra,  and  A.  squamosa  are  all  recommended  by  P.  J. 
Wester.  In  Florida  A.  squamom  has  proved  to  be  a  good  stock 
when  a  dwarf  tree  is  desired ;  A.  glabra  tends  to  outgrow  the 
cion.  In  California,  seedling  cherimoyas  as  stock-plants 
have  given  the  best  results. 

Shield-budding  has  worked  very  satisfactorily  in  the  United 


172     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

States.  In  several  other  regions  horticulturists  have  found 
grafting  more  successful.  Budding  is  best  done  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  growing  season,  when  the  sap  is  flowing  freely. 
Stock-plants  should  be  f  to  i  inch  in  diameter.  Well-matured 
budwood  from  which  the  leaves  have  dropped  is  preferable, 
and  it  should  be  gray,  not  green,  in  color.  The  buds  should  be 
cut  li  inches  in  length,  and  should  be  inserted  exactly  as  in 
budding  avocados  or  mangos.  Waxed  tape,  raffia,  and  soft 
cotton  string  have  proved  satisfactory  for  tying.  Three  or 
four  weeks  after  insertion  of  bud,  the  wrapping  should  be 
loosened  and  the  stock  lopped  at  a  point  5  or  6  inches  above 
the  bud.  Wrapping  should  not  be  removed  entirely  until 
the  bud  has  made  a  growth  of  several  inches. 

For  grafting,  two-year-old  seedlings  are  to  be  preferred 
(for  budding  they  may  be  somewhat  younger).  The  cleft- 
graft  is  the  method  usually  employed.  The  cion  should  be 
well-matured  wood  from  which  the  leaves  have  dropped.  C. 
H.  Gable  wrote  from  Madeira  in  1914  :  "I  have  been  surprised 
to  find  how  easily  the  annona  is  grafted.  My  first  few  efforts 
were  not  very  successful,  but  later  I  grafted  them  in  all  sizes 
from  seedlings  smaller  than  a  lead  pencil  to  old  trees,  and  more 
than  90%  have  grown  beautifully."  Gable  found  it  advisable 
after  making  the  graft  to  paint  the  cion  and  the  top  of  the  stock 
(around  the  cleft)  with  melted  wax,  to  prevent  evaporation. 

Old  seedling  trees  can  be  top- worked  without  difficulty.  For 
this  purpose  cleft-grafting  is  used  more  commonly  than  any 
other  method. 

The  pollination  of  the  cherimoya  has  been  investigated  in 
Florida  by  P.  J.  Wester,  and  in  Madeira  by  C.  H.  Gable.  It 
has  been  thought  that  the  scanty  productiveness  of  many 
trees  might  be  due  to  insufficient  pollination,  and  the  inves- 
tigations tend  to  confirm  this  belief.  Gable  reports  that 
normally  in  Madeira  not  more  than  5  per  cent  of  the  flowers 
produced  develop  into  fruits.  By  hand-pollinating  them, 


THE  ANNONACEOUS  FRUITS  173 

however,  he  was  able  to  obtain  thirty-six  fruits  from  forty-five 
flowers. 

After  carrying  on  pollination  experiments  in  Florida  during 
several  years,  P.  J.  Wester1  wrote:  "The  investigations  indi- 
cate that  the  flowers  of  the  cherimoya,  the  sugar-apple,  the 
custard-apple  and  the  pond-apple  are  proterogynous  and 
entomophilous,  though  the  pollinating  agent  of  the  last-named 
species  has  not  been  detected."  A  proterogynous  plant,  it  may 
be  remarked,  is  one  in  which  the  pistils  are  receptive  before 
the  anthers  have  developed  ripe  pollen,  cross-pollination  being 
therefore  necessary,  and  some  outside  agency  being  required 
to  effect  it.  In  the  case  of  the  annonas  the  work  is  done  by 
insects ;  hence  the  plants  are  termed  entomophilous. 

The  pollination  of  the  closely  allied  Asimina  triloba  is 
thus  described  by  Delpino : 2  "  The  stamens  project  in  the 
center  of  the  pendulous  protogynous  (proterogynous)  flower  as 
a  hemispherical  mass,  from  the  middle  of  which  a  few  styles 
with  their  stigmas  project.  In  the  first  (female)  stage  of 
anthesis  the  three  inner  petals  lie  so  close  to  the  stamens  that 
insect  visitors  (flies)  cannot  suck  the  nectar  secreted  at  the 
bases  of  the  former  without  touching  the  already  mature 
stigmas.  In  the  second  (male)  stage  the  stigmas  have  dried 
up  and  the  inner  petals  have  raised  themselves,  so  that  the 
anthers,  —  now  covered  with  pollen,  —  are  touched  by  insects 
on  their  way  to  the  nectar.  Cross-pollination  of  the  younger 
flowers  is  therefore  effected  by  transference  from  the  older  ones." 

Wester  concluded  that  one  cause  of  the  unproductiveness  of 
the  cherimoya  in  Florida  was  the  scarcity  of  pollinating  insects. 
Even  under  the  same  conditions  of  environment,  however, 
there  are  marked  differences  in  productiveness  among  seedling 
trees.  The  subject  deserves  further  investigation.  Produc- 
tive varieties  especially  should  be  studied,  to  determine  whether 

1  Bull,  of  the  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  37,  1910. 

2  Paul  Knuth,  Handbook  of  Flower  Pollination. 


174     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

or  not  they  differ  in  any  way  from  the  typical  less  fecund  form 
in  manner  of  pollination. 

The  crop. 

Seedling  cherimoyas,  when  grown  under  favorable  cultural 
conditions,  begin  to  bear  the  third  or  fourth  year  after  planting. 
Most  of  them,  even  at  fifteen  or  twenty  years  of  age,  do  not 
produce  annually  more  than  a  dozen  good  fruits.  Occasional 
trees  are  more  satisfactory  in  this  respect,  and  it  is  such  trees 
which  should  be  propagated  by  budding.  The  writer  has 
observed  one  small  tree  in  Guatemala  which  bore  eighty-five 
fruits  in  a  single  season,  and  C.  H.  Gable  found  a  tree  in  Madeira 
which  bore  three  hundred. 

In  California  the  main  season  for  cherimoyas  is  spring,  usu- 
ally March  and  April ;  but  sometimes  a  few  fruits  mature  in  late 
autumn.  In  Argentina  the  season  is  February  to  July.  Felix 
Foex  states  that  there  are  ripe  cherimoyas  in  Mexico  through- 
out the  year,  owing  to  the  presence  of  trees  at  different  eleva- 
tions. From  personal  observation  the  writer  ventures  to 
doubt  whether  this  all-year  season  is  a  fact ;  in  any  event,  they 
are  not  abundant  during  the  entire  year.  In  Madeira  the  fruit 
begins  to  ripen  about  the  end  of  November  and  continues  in 
season  until  early  in  February. 

When  fully  mature  or  "tree-ripe,"  the  fruits  are  picked  and 
laid  away  to  soften.  If,  however,  they  are  to  be  shipped  to 
distant  markets  they  are  packed  as  soon  as  removed  from  the 
tree,  and  dispatched  at  once  so  that  they  will  reach  their  desti- 
nation before  they  have  become  soft.  When  fully  mature  and 
ready  to  pick,  they  usually  have  a  yellowish  tinge.  In  Mexico 
they  are  packed  for  shipment  in  baskets,  using  hay  or  straw  as 
a  cushion.  According  to  H.  F.  Schultz,  the  same  method  is 
used  in  Argentina,  where  twelve  to  fifteen  dozen  fruits  are 
packed  in  a  basket.  Good  ventilation  should  be  insured,  and 
the  fruits  should  not  be  wrapped  in  paper.  Cherimoyas  ex- 


THE  ANNONACEOUS  FRUITS  175 

ported  from  Madeira  to  London  net  the  growers  $1.00  to  $1.20 
a  dozen.  In  Argentina  the  average  price  to  growers  is  $2.20 
a  dozen. 

Pests  and  diseases. 

Although  the  cherimoya  has  up  to  the  present  suffered 
little  from  the  attacks  of  insect  and  other  pests  in  California 
and  Florida,  it  is  far  from  being  exempt  from  them  in  regions 
where  it  has  been  grown  extensively  for  a  long  period.  In 
Hawaii,  Pseudococcus  filamentosus  Cockerell  is  a  serious  enemy. 
Several  other  coccids  have  also  been  reported  on  the  cherimoya, 
Aulacaspis  miranda  Cockerell  and  Ceropute  yucca?  Coquillet 
are  two  which  are  mentioned  from  Mexico.  Certain  of  the 
fruit-flies  (Trypetidse)  are  known  to  attack  the  fruits  of  the 
cherimoya.  Throughout  the  warmer  parts  of  America  there 
are  small  chalcid  flies,  related  to  the  wheat-joint  worm  and  the 
grape-seed  chalcid,  which  infest  the  seeds  of  annonaceous  fruits. 
Bephrata  cubensis  Ashm.  has  been  reported  as  attacking  the 
cherimoya  in  Cuba.  These  insects  are  serious  pests.  In 
Argentina  the  attacks  of  borers  are  said  to  reduce  the  life  of 
the  average  tree  by  half,  making  it  thirty  in  place  of  sixty  years. 

Varieties  (Fig.  24). 

While  there  are  important  differences  among  seedling  cheri- 
moyas,  affecting  not  only  the  productiveness  and  foliage  of  the 
tree  but  also  the  size,  form,  character  of  surface,  color,  quality, 
and  number  of  seeds  of  the  fruit,  few  named  varieties  have 
as  yet  been  propagated.  In  the  Pomona  College  Journal  of 
Economic  Botany  (May,  1912)  the  author  has  described  two, 
viz.,  Mammillaris  and  Golden  Russet,  which  have  been  propa- 
gated in  California  on  a  limited  scale.  Neither  of  these,  how- 
ever, merits  extensive  cultivation ;  hence  the  descriptions  will 
not  be  included  in  this  work.  It  seems  desirable,  however,  to 
repeat  the  botanical  classification  of  seedling  cherimoyas  pub- 


176     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

lished  by  W.  E.  Safford  in  the  Standard  Cyclopedia  of  Horti- 
culture.    This  comprises  the  following  five  forms  : 

Finger-printed  (botanically  known  as  forma  impressa). —  Called  in 
Costa  Rica  anona  de  dedos  pintados.  The  fruit  is  conoid  or  subglobose 
in  shape,  and  has  a  smooth  surface  covered  with  U-shaped  areoles 
resembling  finger-prints  in  wax.  Many  seedlings  of  this  type  are  of 
good  quality,  and  contain  few  seeds. 

Smooth  (forma  Icevis).  —  Called  chirimoya  lisa  in  South  America 
and  anon  in  Mexico  City.  This  form  is  often  mistaken  for  Annona 
glabra  and  A.  reticulata  because  of  the  general  appearance  of  the  fruit 
and  on  account  of  the  name  anon,  which  is  also  applied  to  A.  reticulata. 
One  of  the  finest  types  of  cherimoya. 


FIG.  24.     Seedling  cherimoyas,  showing  some  of  the  common  types.  (X  I) 

Tuberculate  (forma  tuberculata) .  —  One  of  the  commonest  forms. 
The  fruit  is  heart-shaped  and  has  wart-like  tubercles  near  the  apex  of 
each  areole.  The  Golden  Russet  variety  belongs  to  this  group. 

Mammillate  (forma  mamillata).  —  Called  in  South  America  chiri- 
moya de  tetillas.  Said  to  be  common  in  the  Nilgiri  hills  in  southern 
India,  and  to  be  one  of  the  best  forms  grown  in  Madeira. 

Umbonate  (forma  umbonata).  —  Called  chirimoya  de  puas  and  anona 
picuda  in  Latin  America.  The  skin  is  thick,  the  pulp  more  acid  than 
in  other  forms,  and  the  seeds  more  numerous.  The  fruit  is  oblong- 
conical,  with  the  base  somewhat  umbilicate  and  the  surface  studded 
with  protuberances,  each  of  which  corresponds  to  a  component  carpel. 

Hybrids  between  the  cherimoya  and  the  sugar-apple  (Annona 
squamosd)  have  been  produced  in  Florida  by  P.  J.  Wester  and 


PLATE  IX.     Upper,  the  home  of  the  Fardh  date ;  lower,  in  the  date 
gardens  of  Basrah. 


176     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

lished  by  W.  E.  Safford  in  the  Standard  Cyclopedia  of  Horti- 
culture.    This  comprises  the  following  five  forms  : 

Finger-printed  (botanically  known  as  forma  impressa).  —  Called  in 
Costa  Rica  anona  de  dedos  pintados.  The  fruit  is  conoid  or  subglobose 
in  shape,  and  has  a  smooth  surface  covered  with  U-shaped  areoles 
resembling  finger-prints  in  wax.  Many  seedlings  of  this  type  are  of 
good  quality,  and  contain  few  seeds. 

Smooth  (forma  Icevis).  —  Called  chirimoya  lisa  in  South  America 
and  anon  in  Mexico  City.  This  form  is  often  mistaken  for  Annona 
glabra  and  A.  reticulata  because  of  the  general  appearance  of  the  fruit 
and  on  account  of  the  name  anon,  which  is  also  applied  to  A.  reticulata. 
One  of  the  finest  types  of  cherimoya. 


FIG.  24.     Seedling  cherimoyas,  showing  some  of  the  common  types.  (X  ^) 

Tuberculate  (forma  tuberculata) .  —  One  of  the  commonest  forms. 
The  fruit  is  heart-shaped  and  has  wart-like  tubercles  near  the  apex  of 
each  areole.  The  Golden  Russet  variety  belongs  to  this  group. 

Mammillate  (forma  mamillata).  —  Called  in  South  America  chiri- 
moya de  tetillas.  Said  to  be  common  in  the  Nilgiri  hills  in  southern 
India,  and  to  be  one  of  the  best  forms  grown  in  Madeira. 

Umbonate  (forma  umbonata).  —  Called  chirimoya  de  puas  and  anona 
picuda  in  Latin  America.  The  skin  is  thick,  the  pulp  more  acid  than 
in  other  forms,  and  the  seeds  more  numerous.  The  fruit  is  oblong- 
conical,  with  the  base  somewhat  umbilicate  and  the  surface  studded 
with  protuberances,  each  of  which  corresponds  to  a  component  carpel. 

Hybrids  between  the  cherimoya  and  the  sugar-apple  (Annona 
squamosa)  have  been  produced  in  Florida  by  P.  J.  Wester  and 


PLATE  IX.     Upper,  the  home  of  the  Fardh  date ;  lower,  in  the  date 
gardens  of  Basrah. 


THE  ANNONACEOUS  FRUITS 


177 


Edward  Simmonds.  The  aim  has  been  to  develop  a  fruit  having 
the  delicious  flavor  of  the  cherimoya,  yet  adapted  to  strictly  trop- 
ical conditions.  Some  of  the  hybrids  have  proved  to  be  very 
good  fruits,  and  further  work  along  this  line  is  greatly  to  be  de- 
sired. Wester  calls  this  new  fruit  atemoya.  Hybrids  between  it 
and  the  sugar-apple,  the  bullock's-heart,  and  the  pond-apple  (all 
of  which  see  below)  have  been  obtained  by  him  in  the  Philippines. 

THE  SUGAR-APPLE  (Fig.  25) 
(Annona  squamosa,  L.) 

With  the  exception  of  the  little-known  ilama  (described  later), 
the  sugar-apple  is  the  best  of  the  tropical  annonas.  In  its 
climatic  requirements  it  resembles  the  bullock's-heart  and  the 
soursop,  rather  than  the 
subtropical  cherimoya. 
In  precocity  and  pro- 
ductiveness it  excels  all 
of  these  species. 

The  sugar-apple  is 
more  widely  dissemi- 
nated throughout  the 
tropics  than  any  other 
species  of  Annona,  and 
in  many  regions  is  an 
important  fruit.  Par- 

•      i     i      •     •  j       '  FIG.  25.    The  sugar-apple  ( Annona  squamosa), 

tlCUlarly  IS  it  esteemed      a  favorite  fruit  in  India  and  many  parts  of  tropi- 
cal America.     The  tree   succeeds   particularly 


well  in  dry  situations.  (X  \) 


in    India,    where  it  is 

extensively  grown.     P. 

Vincenzo  Maria  wrote  of  it  in  1672  :  "The  pulp  is  very  white, 

tender,  delicate,  and  so  delicious  that  it  unites  to  agreeable 

sweetness  a  most  delightful  fragrance  like  rose  water  .  .  .  and 

if  presented  to  one  unacquainted  with  it  he  would  certainly 

take  it  for  a  blanc-mange." 


178     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

The  tree  is  smaller  than  that  of  most  other  species  of  the 
genus,  its  maximum  height  being  15  to  20  feet.  Like  the 
cherimoya,  it  is  semi-deciduous.  The  leaves  resemble  those 
of  A .  reticulata  except  in  their  smaller  size ;  they  are  lanceolate  or 
oblong-lanceolate  in  form,  acute  or  shortly  acuminate  at  the 
apex  and  acute  at  the  base,  2i  to  4  inches  long,  pale  green  on 
both  surfaces,  and  glabrate  or  nearly  so,  except  for  the  sparsely 
pubescent  petiole.  The  flowers,  which  are  produced  singly  or 
in  clusters  of  two  to  four,  resemble  those  of  A.  reticulata. 
They  are  greenish  yellow  in  color,  about  an  inch  long,  the  three 
outer  petals  oblong,  thick,  rounded  at  the  tips;  the  inner 
petals  minute,  ovate.  The  fruit  is  round,  heart-shaped,  ovate 
or  conical,  2  to  3  inches  in  diameter,  yellowish  green  in  color. 
The  surface  is  tuberculate  and  covered  with  a  whitish  bloom. 
The  pulp  is  white,  custard-like,  sweet  and  slightly  acidulous  in 
flavor.  The  carpels,  each  of  which  normally  contains  a  brown 
seed  the  size  of  a  small  bean,  cohere  loosely  or  not  at  all,  the 
sugar-apple  differing  in  this  respect  from  the  cherimoya,  in 
which  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  carpellary  divisions  in  the  flesh. 

The  sugar-apple  is  indigenous  in  tropical  America.  Its 
abundance  in  India  at  a  very  early  period  has  led  several 
botanists  to  assume  that  it  was  common  to  tropical  America 
and  tropical  Asia.  More  recently,  however,  the  belief  has 
found  acceptance  that  it  was  originally  limited  in  its  distribu- 
tion to  the  New  World.  Alphonse  DeCandolle,  who  dis- 
cusses this  subject  at  length,  concludes :  "  It  can  hardly  be 
doubted,  in  my  opinion,  that  its  original  home  is  America, 
and  in  especial  the  West  India  islands." 

The  arguments  advanced  in  favor  of  an  Asiatic  origin  for  the 
species  were  the  occurrence  of  common  names  for  it  in  Sanskrit ; 
the  fact  of  the  tree  growing  wild  in  several  parts  of  India ;  and 
the  presence  of  carvings  and  wall-paintings,  believed  to  rep- 
resent the  fruit,  in  the  ruins  of  ancient  Muttra  and  Ajanta. 
Yule  and  Burnell  (Hobson-Jobson)  suggest  that  it  may  have 


THE  ANNONACEOUS  FRUITS  179 

reached  India  from  both  of  two  directions :  from  Mexico  via 
the  Philippines  and  from  Hispaniola  (Santo  Domingo,  in  the 
West  Indies)  via  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope;  in  the  former  in- 
stance bringing  with  it  the  common  name  ata,  or  ate,  which  is 
still  used  in  parts  of  Mexico  (e.g.,  the  Huasteca  region,  near 
Tampico),  and  in  the  latter  coming  under  the  name  annona. 
Safford  is  not  certain  that  the  name  ata  is  of  American  origin ;  he 
suspects  it  may  be  derived  from  the  Malayan  word  atis,  meaning 
heart,  and  that  it  was  carried  to  Mexico  from  the  Philippines  in 
early  days. 

In  tropical  America  the  sugar-apple  is  widely  distributed. 
In  the  lowlands  of  Mexico  it  is  a  popular  fruit,  often  cultivated 
and  not  infrequently  found  in  a  naturalized  or  wild  state.  It  is 
grown  from  Central  America  southward  to  northern  South 
America,  extending  there  on  the  east  into  Central  Brazil,  where 
it  is  one  of  the  important  cultivated  fruits.  At  Bahia,  Brazil, 
it  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  first  in  1626  by  the  Conde  de 
Miranda,  after  whom  it  is  called  fructa  do  conde  (Count's  fruit). 
In  Cuba  it  ranks  with  the  mango  as  one  of  the  favorite  fruits, 
and  it  is  common  in  other  islands  of  the  West  Indies. 

In  the  Orient  its  cultivation  is  not  limited  to  India,  although 
it  appears  to  be  most  extensive  there.  It  is  grown  in  the  Philip- 
pines, in  south  China  (where  it  is  known  as  far^-li-chi,  or  foreign 
litchi),  and  in  Cochin-China.  In  many  islands  of  Polynesia 
it  is  abundant.  Vaughan  MacCaughey  says:  "It  is  common 
in  many  of  the  older  Hawaiian  gardens,  not  only  in  Honolulu, 
but  also  on  the  other  islands  of  the  group."  In  the  French 
colonies  near  the  African  coast  it  is  well  known,  and  it  is  also 
reported  from  the  mainland  of  Africa.  Albert  H.  Benson 1 
writes :  "  It  is  grown  throughout  a  considerable  part  of  coastal 
Queensland.  ...  It  is  usually  a  heavy  bearer,  and  is  the 
variety  (of  annona)  most  commonly  met  with  in  our  fruit 
stores."  It  is  not  known  to  have  succeeded  in  the  Medi- 
1  Fruits  of  Queensland,  Dept.  Agr.  Brisbane,  1911. 


180     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

terranean  region,  although  it  has  been  planted  in  several  dis- 
tricts there. 

So  far  as  is  known,  the  sugar-apple  tree  has  never  been  grown 
to  fruiting  size  in  California  :  the  climate  appears  to  be  too  cool 
for  it.  In  Florida,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  quite  successful.  P. 
W.  Reasoner  records  that  it  has  fruited  as  far  north  as  Putnam 
County.  On  the  east  coast  it  occurs  as  far  north  as  Cape  Can- 
averal, and  on  the  west  it  is  found  on  the  south  side  of  the 
Manatee  River.  The  zone  in  which  it  can  safely  be  grown, 
however,  lies  farther  south,  viz.,  from  Punta  Gorda  on  the  west 
coast  and  Palm  Beach  on  the  east  to  Key  West.  Throughout 
this  part  of  Florida  it  succeeds  admirably,  and  deserves  greater 
popularity  than  it  enjoys  at  present. 

,     In  addition  to  sugar-apple,  a  name  probably  of  West  Indian 

Origin,  the  term  sweet-sop  is  used  in  the  British  West  Indies. 

/  In  India  it  is  called  custard-apple  by  English-speaking  people. 

(^Its  commonest  name  in  Hindustani  is  sharifa  (meaning  noble)  : 
but  it  is  also  called  sitaphal  (the  fruit  of  Sita).  The  name  ata 
is  given  it  in  parts  of  India.  In  the  French  colonies  the  names 
are  pomme-cannelle  (cinnamon  apple)  and  atte.  In  the  interior 
of  Brazil  the  Portuguese  name  is  pinha;  on  the  coast  atta  and 
fructa  do  conde  are  also  heard.  In  Mexico  the  Spanish  terms 
are  anona,  anona  blanca,  and  (erroneously)  saramuya  and 
chirimoya.  In  Cuba  anon  is  the  form  generally  used ;  this  also 
appears  in  Costa  Rica.  The  Aztec  name  used  in  ancient  Mexico 
was  texaltzapotl,  meaning  "zapote  which  grows  on  stony 
ground."  The  botanical  synonyms  of  A.  squamosa,  L.,  are 
several;  Safford  lists  A.  cinerea,  Dunal,  A.  Forskahlii,  DC., 
and  A.  biflora,  Moc.  &  Sesse. 

The  sugar-apple  is  preeminently  a  dessert  fruit.  Unlike 
the  soursop,  it  is  never  made  into  preserves  nor  is  it  commonly 
used  for  sherbets.  In  composition  it  is  similar  to  the  cherimoya. 
Alice  R.  Thompson,  who  has  analyzed  the  fruit  in  Hawaii,  has 
found  it  to  contain :  Total  solids  24.82  per  cent,  ash  0.67 


THE  ANNONACEOUS  FRUITS  181 

per  cent,  acids  0.12  per  cent,  protein  1.53  per  cent,  total  sugars 
18.15  per  cent,  fat  0.54  per  cent,  and  fiber  1.22  per  cent.  In 
spite  of  its  similarity  in  most  chemical  constituents,  the  sugar- 
apple  is  not  equal  to  the  cherimoya  in  flavor.  It  has  less 
piquancy,  less  character  than  the  latter. 

The  climatic  requirements  of  the  tree  are  somewhat  different 
from  those  of  its  congeners.  It  delights  in  a  hot  and  relatively 
dry  climate,  such  as  that  of  the  low-lying  interior  plains  of 
many  tropical  countries.  In  Central  America  it  is  rarely  seen 
at  elevations  greater  than  2500  feet.  In  hardiness  it  ranks 
between  the  soursop  and  the  cherimoya.  Mature  plants 
are  not  seriously  injured  by  temperatures  of  28°  or  29°  above 
zero ;  young  ones  may  be  killed  at  30°.  . 

G.  Marshall  Woodrow x  says :  "A  deep,  very  stony  soil  with 
perfect  drainage,  enriched  with  decayed  town  sweepings,  are 
the  conditions  enjoyed  by  this  hardy  fruit  tree."  In  other 
regions  it  has  been  noted  that  it  does  well  on  rocky  land,  al- 
though it  is  probable  that  it  prefers  a  loose  sandy  loam.  Since 
it  is  rarely  given  systematic  cultivation,  little  can  be  said  regard- 
ing cultural  methods.  F.  S.  Earle  has  found  in  Cuba  that  it 
needs  to  be  fertilized  generously  for  the  best  results  in  fruit 
production,  and  he  recommends  a  commercial  fertilizer  con- 
taining 3  per  cent  nitrogen,  10  per  cent  phosphoric  acid,  and 
10  per  cent  potash.  The  sugar-apple  withstands  drought  better 
than  many  other  fruit-trees. 

The  methods  of  propagation  employed  are  the  same  as  with 
the  cherimoya.  Shield-budding  has  given  the  most  satisfactory 
results  in  Florida.  P.  J.  Wester  has  found  that  A.  reticulata 
and  A.  glabra  are  congenial  stock-plants;  seedling  sugar- 
apples  are  also  used  for  the  purpose,  and  are  perhaps  better 
than  those  of  a  different  species. 

Compared  with  other  species  of  Annona,  the  sugar-apple 
bears  heavily.  This  does  not  mean,  however,  that  the  trees 
1  Gardening  in  India. 


182     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

habitually  load  themselves  with  fruit,  for  they  rarely  do  so. 
A  mature  tree,  fifteen  feet  in  height,  may  produce  several  dozen 
fruits  in  a  season.  Usually  all  of  them  do  not  ripen  at  one  time ; 
thus  the  season  is  much  longer  than  that  of  the  cherimoya.  In 
Florida  it  is  common  to  pick  ripe  fruits  during  as  many  as  six 
months  out  of  the  year.  When  the  fruits  are  fully  ripe,  they 
burst  open  on  the  tree.  They  should  be  picked  before  reaching 
this  stage  and  placed  in  the  house,  where  they  will  soften  in 
one  to  three  days.  After  they  have  softened  and  are  ready 
for  eating,  they  must  be  handled  with  care.  The  fruit  of  the 
sugar-apple  is  not  so  well  adapted  to  shipping  long  distances 
as  that  of  the  cherimoya. 

Seedlings  usually  come  into  bearing  when  three  or  four  years 
old.  Some  are  much  more  productive  than  others,  and  there 
is  much  variation  in  the  size  and  quality  of  fruit  produced  by 
different  trees.  When  a  tree  has  proved  to  be  unusually  good, 
it  should  be  propagated  by  budding. 

THE  SOURSOP  (Plate  VIII) 

(Annona  muricata,  L.) 

For  the  preparation  of  sherbets  and  other  refreshing  drinks, 
the  soursop  is  unrivaled.  Those  who  have  visited  Habana 
and  there  sipped  the  delectable  champola  de  guandbana  will 
agree  with  Cubans  that  it  is  one  of  the  finest  beverages  in  the 
world.  Soursop  sherbet  is  equal  to  that  prepared  from  the 
best  of  the  temperate  zone  fruits,  if  not  superior  to  all  other 
ices. 

The  tree  is  more  strictly  tropical  in  its  requirements  than  the 
cherimoya  or  the  sugar-apple.  It  withstands  very  little  frost, 
and  succeeds  best  in  the  tropical  lowlands.  Though  widely 
disseminated,  it  is  nowhere  grown  on  an  extensive  scale.  This 
is  due,  most  probably,  to  the  scanty  productiveness  which 
characterizes  the  species  in  general.  There  is  an  opportunity 


THE  ANNONACEOUS  FRUITS  183 

here  for  an  excellent  piece  of  work ;  by  obtaining  a  productive 
variety  and  propagating  it  by  budding,  or  by  increasing  the 
productiveness  of  the  species  through  improved  cultural 
methods,  the  soursop  could  be  made  profitable  and  of  consider- 
able commercial  importance.  In  the  large  cities  of  tropical 
America  there  is  a  good  demand  for  the  fruits  at  all  times  of  the 
year,  a  demand  which  is  not  adequately  met  at  present. 

The.soursop  is  a  small  tree,  usually  slender  in  habit  and  rarely 
more  than  20  feet  high.  The  leaves  are  obovate  to  elliptic 
in  form,  commonly  3  to  6  inches  long,  acute,  leathery  in  texture, 
glossy  above  and  glabrous  beneath.  The  flowers  are  large,  the 
three  exterior  petals  ovate-acute,  valvate,  and  fleshy,  the  interior 
ones  smaller  and  thinner,  rounded,  with  the  edges  overlapping. 
The  fruit  is  the  largest  of  the  annonas ;  specimens  5  pounds  in 
weight  are  not  uncommon  and  much  larger  ones  have  been 
reported.  It  is  ovoid,  heart-shaped,  or  oblong-conical  in  form, 
deep  green  in  color,  with  numerous  short  fleshy  spines  on  the 
surface.  The  skin  has  a  rank,  bitter  flavor.  The  flesh  is  white, 
somewhat  cottony  in  texture,  juicy,  and  highly  aromatic. 
Numerous  brown  seeds,  much  like  those  of  the  cherimoya,  are 
embedded  in  it.  The  flavor  suggests  that  of  the  pineapple  and 
the  mango. 

Alphonse  DeCandolle  says  that  the  soursop  "is  wild  in  the 
West  Indies;  at  least  its  existence  has  been  proved  in  the 
islands  of  Cuba,  Santo  Domingo,  Jamaica,  and  several  of  the 
smaller  islands."  Safford  states  that  it  is  of  tropical  American 
origin.  The  historian  Gonzalo  Hernandez  de  Oviedo,  in  his 
"Natural  History  of  the  Indies,"  written  in  1526,  describes  the 
soursop  at  some  length,  and  he  mentions  having  seen  it  growing 
abundantly  in  the  West  Indies  as  well  as  on  the  mainland  of 
South  America.  At  the  present  day  it  is  perhaps  more  popular 
in  Cuba  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  tropics.  In  Mexico  it 
occurs  in  many  places,  and  the  fruit  is  often  seen  in  the  markets. 
It  is  also  grown  in  the  tropical  portions  of  South  America.  H.  F. 


184     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

\       > 

\  Macmillan  says  that  it  thrives  in  Ceylon  up  to  elevations  of 

2000  feet.  It  is  cultivated  in  India,  in  Cochin-China,  and  in 
many  parts  of  Polynesia.  Vaughan  MacCaughey  states  that 
it  is  the  commonest  species  of  Annona  in  the  markets  of  Hono- 
lulu. Paul  Hubert  notes  that  it  is  cultivated  in  Reunion  and 
on  the  west  coast  of  Africa. 

It  will  be  observed  that  its  distribution  is  limited  to  tropical 
regions.  In  the  United  States  it  can  only  be  grown  in  southern 
Florida,  where  with  slight  protection  it  succeeds  at  Miami  and 
even  as  far  north  as  Palm  Beach.  Exceptionally  cold  winters, 
however,  may  kill  the  trees  to  the  ground.  In  California  it  is 
not  successful. 

The  name  soursop  is  of  West  Indian  origin,  and  is  the  one 
commonly  used  in  English-speaking  countries.  In  Mexico  the 
fruit  is  known  as  zapote  agrio,  and  more  commonly  as  guandbana 
(sometimes  abbreviated  to  guanaba),  which  is  the  name  most 
extensively  used  in  Spanish-speaking  countries.  Guandbana  is 
considered  to  have  come  originally  from  the  island  of  Santo 
Domingo.  In  the  French  colonies  the  common  name  is 
corossol  or  cachiman  epineux.  Yule  and  Burnell  say  :  "  Grainger 
identifies  the  soursop  with  the  suirsack  of  the  Dutch.  But  in 
this,  at  least  as  regards  use  in  the  East  Indies,  there  is  some 
mistake.  The  latter  term,  in  old  Dutch  writers  on  the  East, 
seems  always  to  apply  to  the  common  jackfruit,  the  'sourjack,' 
in  fact,  as  distinguished  from  the  superior  kinds,  especially 
the  champada  of  the  Malay  Archipelago."  In  Mexican  publi- 
cations the  soursop  is  sometimes  confused  with  the  soncoya 
(A.  purpurea),  though  it  actually  differs  widely  from  the  latter 
both  in  foliage  and  fruit. 

The  soursop  is  more  tolerant  of  moisture  than  the  sugar- 
apple,  and  can  be  grown  in  moist  tropical  regions  with  greater 
success.  Temperatures  below  the  freezing  point  are  likely  to 
injure  it,  although  mature  trees  may  withstand  29°  or  30° 
above  zero  without  serious  harm. 


THE  ANNONACEOUS  FRUITS  185 

The  soil  best  suited  to  this  species  is  probably  a  loose,  fairly 
rich,  deep  loam.  It  has  done  well,  however,  on  shallow  sandy 
soils  in  south  Florida.  F.  S.  Earle  has  found  in  Cuba  that 
liberal  applications  of  fertilizer  will  increase  greatly  the  amount 
of  fruit  produced.  The  formula  used  is  the  same  as  that 
recommended  for .  the  sugar-apple.  Little  attention  has  yet 
been  given  to  the  cultural  requirements  of  the  plant. 

The  soursop,  grown  from  seed,  comes  into  bearing  when  three  to 
five  years  old.  The  season  of  ripening  in  Mexico  and  the  West 
Indies  is  June  to  September ;  in  Florida  it  is  about  the  same. 

Mature  trees  rarely  bear  more  than  a  dozen  good  fruits  in  a 
season.  .  Oftentimes  there  are  produced  numerous  small, 
malformed,  abortive  fruits  which  are  of  no  value.  These  are 
due  to  insufficient  pollination,  only  a  few  of  the  carpels  develop- 
ing normally,  the  remainder  being  unable  to  do  so  because  they 
are  not  pollinated.  The  same  phenomenon  often  occurs  in  the 
eherimoya,  and,  less  commonly,  in  the  sugar-apple  and  bullock's- 
heart. 

Seedling  trees  differ  in  the  amount  of  fruit  they  yield.  Only 
the  most  productive  should  be  selected  for  propagation.  It 
may  be  possible  still  further  to  increase  their  productiveness 
by  attention  to  pollination,  and  it  has  been  shown  that  proper 
manuring  is  a  great  aid.  Since  the  fruits  are  commonly  of 
large  size,  it  cannot  be  expected  that  so  small  a  tree  will  produce 
many ;  still,  the  average  seedling  does  not  bear  more  than  a 
small  proportion  of  the  crop  it  could  safely  carry  to  maturity, 
and  the  object  of  future  investigations  should  be  to  obtain 
varieties  which  will  be  more  productive. 

In  various  parts  of  the  world  the  tree  is  attacked  by  several 
scale  insects,  and  the  fruits  by  some  of  the  fruit-flies,  notably  the 
Mediterranean  fruit-fly. 

Propagation  of  the  soursop  is  usually  effected  in  the  tropics  by 
seed.  Choice  varieties  which  originate  as  chance  seedlings, 
however,  can  only  be  perpetuated  by  some  vegetative  means. 


186     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 


P.  J.  Wester  has  found  that  the  species  can  be  budded  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  cherimoya.  He  recommends  as  stock- 
plants  the  bullock's-heart  and  the  pond-apple,  both  described 
below.  Seeds  are  germinated  in  the  same  manner  as  those  of 
the  cherimoya. 

THE  BULLOCK'S-HEART  (Fig.  26) 
(Annona  reticulata,  L.) 

The  bullock's-heart,  although  widely  grown,  is  a  fruit  of 
little  value.     Compared  with  the  sugar-apple  and  the  cherimoya 

it  lacks  flay  or.  An 
occasional  seed- 
ling produces  fruit 
of  fair  quality,  but 
there  is  no  reason 
why  this  species 
should  be  culti- 
vated when  the 
sugar-apple  and 
the  ilama  can  be 
produced  on  the 
same  ground. 

The  tree  is  com- 
monly 20  to  25  feet 
high.  It  is  semi- 
deciduous,  some- 
times remaining 
devoid  of  foliage 
for  several  weeks. 

FIG.  26.     The  bullock's-heart  (Annona  reticulata),  a      The      leaves      are 
fruit  widely  cultivated  in  the  tropics.  (X  |)  oblong- lanceolate 

or  lanceolate  in  form,  commonly  4  to  6  inches  in  length,  acute, 
and  glabrate.  The  flowers  are  borne  in  small  clusters  upon 


THE  ANNONACEOUS   FRUITS  187 

the  new  branchlets.  The  three  outer  petals  are  oblong  linear, 
about  an  inch  long ;  the  inner  ones  small,  scale-like,  and  ovate 
in  form.  The  fruit  is  usually  heart-shaped  (whence  its  common 
name),  but  it  may  be  conical  or  oval.  It  weighs  from  a  few 
ounces  to  2  pounds,  and  requires  a  long  time  to  reach  maturity. 
The  smooth  surface,  usually  reddish-yellow  or  reddish-brown 
in  the  ripe  fruit,  is  divided  by  impressed  lines  into  rhomboidal 
or  hexagonal  areoles.  The  flesh,  which  contains  numerous 
brown  seeds  the  size  of  a  small  bean,  is  milk-white  in  color, 
granular  near  the  thin  skin,  and  sweet,  even  mawkish  in  flavor. 

Safford  says  of  this  species:  "Its  fruit  is  inferior  in  flavor 
to  both  the  cherimoya  and  the  sugar-apple  (A.squamosa), 
from  the  first  of  which  it  may  be  distinguished  by  its  long, 
narrow,  glabrate  leaves,  and  from  the  second  by  its  solid,  com- 
pact fruit  as  well  as  its  larger  leaves.  From  A.  glabra,  with 
which  it  is  also  confused,  it  may  be  distinguished  readily  by  its 
elongate  narrow  outer  petals  and  its  small,  dark  brown  seeds." 

The  bullock's-heart  is  indigenous  in  tropical  America.  It  is 
more  abundant  in  the  gardens  of  seacoast  and  lowland  towns 
than  its  value  warrants.  From  America  it  has  been  carried 
to  the  Asiatic  tropics,  and  it  is  now  cultivated  in  India,  Ceylon, 
the  Malay  Archipelago,  Polynesia,  Australia,  and  Africa. 
Vaughan  MacCaughey  says  that  it  is  not  very  common  in 
Hawaii,  but  may  be  found  in  a  few  gardens.  In  the  Philip- 
pines and  in  Guam  it  has  become  spontaneous. 

One  West  Indian  common  name  of  this  fruit,  custard-apple, 
is  applied  in  India  to  A.  squamosa,  and  sometimes  in  America 
to  A.  Cherimola  and  other  species.  In  India  A.  retwulata  is 
often  termed  ramphal  (fruit  of  Rama) .  In  Mexico  the  Spanish 
names  are  anona  and  anona  Colorado,;  the  Aztec  name,  which 
appears  in  the  early  work  of  Francisco  Hernandez,  was  quauht- 
zapotl,  or  tree  zapote.  In  the  French  colonies  the  name  cachi- 
man  or  cachiman  cceur-de-bceuf  is  generally  used.  In  Brazil 
it  is  called  in  Portuguese  coraqao  de  boi. 


188     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

So  far  as  is  known  the  tree  has  never  fruited  in  California, 
the  climate  of  that  state  being  probably  too  cold  for  it.  It  has 
been  planted  in  protected  situations  there  but  no  specimens  have 
reached  large  size.  In  southern  Florida  it  grows  and  fruits 
well.  P.  W.  Reasoner,1  who  apparently  confused  this  species 
with  the  cherimoya,  says  that  it  is  confined  to  the  same  terri- 
tory in  Florida  as  the  sugar-apple.  Its  requirements  seem  to  be 
about  the  same  as  those  of  A.  squamosa.  It  does  not  appear  to 
be  so  partial,  however,  to  a  dry  climate.  The  mature  tree  will 
withstand  several  degrees  of  frost  without  serious  harm ;  a 
temperature  of  27°  or  28°  usually  does  not  injure  it  severely. 
In  Ceylon,  according  to  H.  F.  Macmillan,  it  does  not  grow  at 
elevations  above  3000  feet.  In  tropical  America  it  ascends 
to  the  same  altitude,  or  occasionally  to  3500  feet. 

The  bullock' s-heart  prefers  a  deep  rich  soil  with  plenty  of 
moisture.  It  is  propagated  by  budding  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  cherimoya.  P.  J.  Wester  has  found  that  it  can  be  budded 
on  the  soursop,  the  pond-apple,  and  the  sugar-apple,  as  well  as 
on  seedlings  of  its  own  species.  As  a  rule,  the  trees  bear  more 
freely  than  those  of  the  soursop  and  cherimoya,  but  not  more 
so  than  the  sugar-apple.  There  are  as  yet  no  named  varieties 
in  cultivation. 

THE  ILAMA  (Fig.  27) 
(Annona  diver sifolia,  Safford)   ' 

The  ilama  is  probably  the  finest  annonaceous  fruit  which 
can  be  grown  in  the  tropical  lowlands ;  yet  it  has  not,  until  very 
recently,  been  planted  outside  the  region  in  which  it  is  in- 
digenous. Now  that  it  has  been  called  to  the  attention  of 
horticulturists,  its  range  should  be  extended  rapidly  to  all  parts 
of  the  tropics. 

1  Bull.  1,  Div.  Pomology. 


THE  ANNONACEOUS  FRUITS 


189 


The  identity  of  the  ilama,  first  mentioned  by  Francisco 
Hernandez  toward  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  remained 
in  doubt  until  W.  E.  Safford  showed,  in  1911,  that  it  was  a 
species  which  had  not  been  described  botanically.  Safford 
named  it  Annona  diversifolia,  and  brought  together  much 
information  concerning  its  habits  and  the  character  of  its  fruit. 
These  data  were  published  in  the  Journal  of  the  Washing- 
ton Academy  of  Sci- 
ences, March  4,  1912. 
More  recently  the 
writer  has  been  able 
to  study  the  species  in 
Mexico  and  Guate- 
mala, and  the  United 
States  Department  of 
Agriculture  has  distrib- 
uted several  thousand 
plants  in  the  warmest 
regions  of  the  United 
States  and  in  tropical 
America. 

The  tree  grows  to  an 
ultimate  height  of  25 

feet.      It   is   slender  in        FlG.  27.     The  ilama  (Annona  diversifolia),  an 
habit      the    trunk    not    excellent  fruit  from  southern  Mexico  and  Central 
A    .  '    America.  (X  about  3) 

more   than   10  inches 

thick,  often  branching  from  the  ground  to  form  three  to  six  main 
stems.  Some  trees  are  erect,  others  spreading  in  habit.  The 
foliage  somewhat  resembles  that  of  A.  squamosa,  but  the  leaves 
are  larger  and  of  distinct  form,  being  broadly  elliptic  to  oblance- 
olate,  rounded  at  the  apex,  and  4  to  5^  inches  in  length.  A 
distinguishing  characteristic  of  this  species  is  the  presence  of  or- 
bicular leaf-like  bracts  at  the  bases  of  the  smaller  branchlets. 
The  flowers  are  maroon-colored,  1  inch  long,  with  the  three  outer 


190     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

petals  linear-oblong  in  form,  the  inner  petals  minute.  The  fruit 
is  conical,  oval,  or  round  in  form,  the  largest  specimens  weighing 
about  H  pounds.  The  surface  is  rough,  with  the  carpel- 
lary  areas  indicated  by  deeply  incised  lines;  from  each  of 
the  areoles  thus  formed  rises  a  short  thick  protuberance. 
Sometimes  these  protuberances  are  suppressed,  the  fruit  then 
being  almost  smooth.  The  color  varies  from  pale  green  to 
magenta-pink.  An  appearance  of  whiteness  is  given  by  the 
presence  of  a  thick  bloom  over  the  entire  surface.  In  the  pale 
green  varieties  the  flesh  is  white ;  in  the  pink  kinds  it  is  tinged 
with  rose-pink.  The  flavor  is  sweet,  very  similar  to  that  of  the 
sugar-apple  in  the  green  varieties ;  in  the  pink  it  is  more  acid, 
resembling  that  of  the  cherimoya.  The  seeds  are  about  as 
numerous  as  in  the  latter  species  but  larger  in  size.  The  fruits 
are  used  fresh,  like  those  of  the  sugar-apple. 

The  ilama  is  indigenous  in  the  mountains  and  foothills  of 
southwestern  Mexico,  Guatemala,  and  Salvador,  but  is  not 
known  to  occur  at  elevations  greater  than  2000  feet.  It  is 
found  in  the  gardens  of  many  Mexican  and  Central  American 
towns,  notably  in  Tapachula,  Chiapas,  where  it  is  one  of  the 
principal  cultivated  fruit-trees.  In  Colima  and  Acapulco, 
Mexico,  it  is  called  ilama  (the  ilamatzapotl  or  "old  women's 
zapote"  of  Hernandez),  while  from  Tehuantepec  to  the  Guate- 
malan border  it  is  known  as  papauce.  In  Guatemala  and 
Salvador  it  is  named  anona  blanca. 

The  climatic  requirements  of  the  ilama  are  similar  to  those 

of  the  sugar-apple  and  the  custard-apple.     The  species  is  found 

only  at  relatively  low  elevations,  indicating  that  it  prefers  a 

i  hot  climate.     The  amount  of  cold  it  will  withstand  has  not  yet 

ff  been  determined.     The  regions  where  it  occurs  most  abundantly 

/  are  dry  during  several  consecutive  months  and   subject  to 

/  abundant  rainfall  the  remainder  of  the  year.     In  Guatemala  it 

I   sometimes  appears  in  places  where  there  is  little  rainfall.     The 

same  is  true  as  regards  Tehuantepec,  but  in  this  region  the  trees 


PLATE  X.     Upper,  a  date  palm  in  full  production ;  lower,  the  purple 

granadilla. 


THE  ANNONACEOUS  FRUITS  191 

are  irrigated.  The  best  soil  seems  to  be  a  deep,  rich,  rather  loose 
loam. 

Although  propagated  in  Mexico  and  Central  America  by 
seed  only,  the  ilama  can  probably  be  budded  in  the  same 
manner  as  other  annonas.  By  using  this  method  of  propagation, 
it  will  be  possible  to  perpetuate  the  best  varieties  which  originate 
as  seedlings. 

The  trees  come  into  bearing  when  three  or  four  years  old, 
and  sometimes  produce  good  crops.  Productive  trees  often 
bear  100  fruits  in  a  single  season.  There  is,  however,  the  same 
variation  in  this  regard  as  with  other  annonas,  though  less  as 
to  the  form  and  size  of  the  fruit.  The  ripening  season  is  short ; 
July  and  August  are  the  principal  months.  When  the  fruits 
are  fully  mature  they  crack  open.  They  are  commonly  left  on 
the  tree  until  they  reach  this  condition  but  it  would  be  better 
to  pick  them  a  few  days  earlier.  So  handled,  they  require  to 
be  kept  one  to  three  days  after  being  taken  from  the  tree  before 
they  soften  and  are  ready  for  eating. 

The  ilama  may  be  termed  the  cherimoya  of  the  lowlands. 
The  cherimoya  does  not  succeed  in  the  tropics  unless  grown 
at  elevations  of  4000  to  6000  feet,  where  the  climate  is  cool. 
The  ilama,  on  the  other  hand,  belongs  to  the  lowlands,  but  is 
strikingly  similar  in  character  to  a  good  cherimoya.  It  is  a 
valuable  recruit  and  one  which  cannot  be  too  strongly  recom- 
mended for  cultivation  throughout  the  tropics. 

MINOR  ANNONACEOUS  FRUITS 

Pond-apple  (Annona  glabra,  L.). — This  species  is  of  no 
value  as  a  fruit,  but  has  been  used  as  a  stock  for  other  annonas. 
It  grows  wild  in  south  Florida  around  the  shores  of  Lake  Oke- 
chobee  and  along  the  Indian  and  Caloosahatchee  rivers ;  occur- 
ring also  in  the  West  Indies,  on  the  mainland  of  tropical  America, 
on  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  and  in  the  Galapagos  Islands.  In 


192     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

Florida  it  is  often  called  custard-apple;  in  the  West  Indies 
alligator-apple  and  cork-wood.  While  tropical  in  nature,  it 
withstands  a  few  degrees  of  frost.  It  is  swamp-loving,  as  the 
name  here  used  indicates,  and  a  vigorous  grower.  The  tree  is 
usually  small,  but  sometimes  reaches  a  height  of  40  feet. 
The  leaves  are  smooth,  ovate  to  oblong  or  elliptic  in  form,  acute 
to  bluntish,  glossy  green  above  and  paler  beneath.  The  flowers 
are  large,  with  the  outer  petals  cream-colored,  the  inner  smaller 
and  narrower,  whitish  outside  and  blood-red  within.  The  fruit 
is  ovoid  or  heart-shaped,  2  to  4  inches  long,  smooth,  yellowish 
when  ripe,  with  soft  yellowish  flesh.  Mexican  writers  have 
asserted  that  the  tree  is  cultivated  and  the  fruit  sold  in  the 
markets.  These  statements  are  due  to  the  confusion  of  A. 
glabra  with  other  species  of  Annona,  most  probably  the  smooth- 
fruited  forms  of  A.  Cherimola  and  A.  reticulata.  Annona  palus- 
triSy  L.  and  A.  laurifolia,  Dunal  are  synonyms  of  A.  glabra,  L. 

Wild  cherimoya  (Annona  longiflora,  Wats.).  —  This  species 
comes  from  the  state  of  Jalisco,  Mexico.  Horticulturally  it  is 
not  yet  well  known,  but  it  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  into 
California.  Safford  describes  it  as  a  shrub  or  small  tree,  with 
leaves  resembling  those  of  the  true  cherimoya  but  distinguished 
when  mature  by  being  glabrate  or  glabrescent  between  the 
lateral  nerves.  The  flowers  are  often  2  inches  long.  The  fruit 
is  conical  or  ovate  in  form,  the  surface  smooth  to  rough  as  in 
the  cherimoya,  which  in  flavor  it  resembles. 

Mountain  soursop  (Annona  montana,  Macf.).  —  This  species 
is  native  to  the  West  Indies,  where  it  is  also  known  as  guanabana 
cimarrona  (Spanish,  wild  guanabana)  and  corossolier  batard 
(French) .  It  is  a  small  forest  tree  with  leaves  resembling  those 
of  the  soursop ;  the  flowers  also  resemble  those  of  that  species. 
P.  J.  Wester,1  who  tested  the  fruit  in  the  Botanic  Garden  at 

1  Philippine  Agrl.  Review,  2,  1916. 


THE  ANNONACEOUS  FRUITS  193 

Buitenzorg,  Java,  was  "  surprised  to  find  it  of  remarkably  good 
quality  considering  that  it  is  entirely  unimproved  and  that  it 
has  never  been  recorded  as  edible.  The  fruit  is  about  the  size 
of  a  small  custard-apple,  with  sparse,  short  prickles ;  greenish, 
and  with  yellowish,  rather  cottony  but  juicy  and  subacid, 
refreshing  pulp,  somewhat  recalling  the  flavor  of  the  soursop 
though  inferior  to  that  fruit."  The  tree  is  larger  and  more 
robust  than  A.  muricata. 

Soncoya  (Annona  purpurea,  Moc.  &  Sesse).  —  This  tree  is 
little  known  outside  of  southern  Mexico  and  Central  America, 
where  it  is  native.  In  Mexico  it  has  been  confused  with  the 
soursop,  although  neither  foliage  nor  fruit  resembles  that  of  A. 
muricata.  It  is  confined  to  the  lowlands ;  a  moist,  hot  climate 
suits  it  best.  In  Mexico  it  is  sometimes  called  cabeza  de  negro 
(negro-head)  and  ilama.  The  leaves  are  large,  oblong-elliptic 
to  oblong-obovate  in  form,  acuminate  at  the  apex.  The  young 
branchlets  are  reddish  pubescent.  The  flowers  resemble  those 
of  the  soursop.  The  fruit  is  round,  sometimes  as  much  as  6 
inches  in  diameter,  brownish  gray  in  color  and  covered  with 
pyramidal  protuberances  which  terminate  in  short  hooks  curved 
toward  the  stem.  The  carpels,  which  separate  readily,  each 
contain  an  obovate  brown  seed  about  an  inch  long.  The  flesh 
is  bright  orange  in  color,  soft,  of  pleasant  flavor  suggesting  that 
of  the  northern  papaw  (Asimina  triloba).  The  fruit  is  not 
highly  esteemed,  but  is  common  in  the  markets  of  the  regions 
where  it  is  native.  The  tree  is  cultivated  in  Mexican  and  Cen- 
tral American  dooryards.  Because  of  its  large  size,  its  thick 
skin,  the  attractive  color  of  its  flesh,  and  its  aromatic  flavor, 
the  soncoya  is  of  interest  in  connection  with  the  possibilities  of 
annona  breeding. 

Posh-te    (Annona    scleroderma,     Safford).  —  This      species, 
which   grows   wild   in   southern   Mexico   and    Guatemala,   is 
o 


194     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

scarcely  known  in  cultivation.  It  is  remarkable  for  its  thick, 
relatively  hard  shell,  which  makes  it  of  possible  value  with 
regard  to  the  production  of  annonas  suitable  for  shipping  to 
distant  markets.  This  is  a  vigorous  tree  with  large,  thick, 
glabrous,  oblong  leaves  and  small  cinnamon-brown  flowers. 
The  fruit  is  roundish  oblate  in  form,  about  3  inches  in  diameter, 
with  dull  green  surface  divided  into  areoles  by  small  ridges,  the 
shell  being  nearly  ^  inch  thick.  The  seeds,  which  are  embedded 
in  the  white  melting  pulp,  are  about  the  same  size  as  those  of  the 
cherimoya.  O.  F.  Cook 1  says :  "  The  texture  of  the  pulp  is 
perfect,  the  flavor  aromatic  and  delicious  with  no  unpleasant 
aftertaste.  It  is  much  richer  than  the  soursop,  with  a  suggestion 
of  the  flavor  of  the  matasano  (Casimiroa  edulis).  .  .  .  The 
most  fragrant  pulp  is  close  to  the  rind.  The  seeds  separate  from 
the  surrounding  pulp  more  readily  than  in  most  annona  fruits." 
The  posh-te  appears  to  be  adapted  to  moist  tropical  regions  most 
probably  at  elevations  of  less  than  4000  feet. 

Annona  testudinea,  Safford,  the  anona  del  monte  of  Honduras 
and  Guatemala,  is  closely  related  to  A.  scleroderma.  The  fruit 
has  soft,  juicy  pulp  similar  to  that  of  the  cherimoya  but  not 
quite  so  highly  flavored.  When  fully  ripe  the  surface  takes  on  a 
brownish  color.  The  external  appearance  of  the  fruit  resembles 
that  of  the  posh-te,  although  the  ridges  are  not  so  pronounced. 
Both  of  these  species  merit  horticultural  attention. 

Biribd  (Rollinia  deliciosa,  Safford) .  —  Jacques  Huber  2  de- 
scribes this  as  a  medium-sized  tree  common  in  the  orchards  of 
Para,  Brazil.  Its  growth  is  rapid  and  it  prospers  equally  well 
in  sun  and  shade.  "Of  all  the  annonaceous  fruits  cultivated 
in  Para  this  seems  best  adapted  to  our  (i.e.,  the  north  Brazilian) 
climate,  springing  up  almost  spontaneously  wherever  seeds 
fall."  The  biriba  has  been  referred  incorrectly  to  R.  orthopetala, 

Journal  Wash.  Acad.  Sci.,  Feb.  19,  1913. 
2  Boletim  Museu  Goeldi,  1904. 


THE  ANNONACEOUS  FRUITS  195 

A.  DC.,  from  which  it  can  be  distinguished  by  the  decurved 
wings  of  its  flowers.  The  leaves  are  obovate-oblong  or  elliptic 
in  form,  acuminate,  8  to  11  inches  long,  and  nearly  glabrous. 
The  fruit  is  roundish  oblate  in  shape,  3  to  5  inches  in  diameter, 
cream-yellow  in  color,  with  the  areoles  distinctly  outlined. 
The  flesh  is  white  or  cream-colored,  juicy,  sweet,  and  of  pleasant 
flavor.  In  Para  it  has  been  characterized  as  the  finest  annona- 
ceous  fruit  of  tropical  America,  but  Florida-grown  fruits  do 
not  entitle  the  species  to  this  distinction :  neither  do  specimens 
purchased  in  the  markets  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  where  they  are  sold 
under  the  name  fructa  da  condessa  (Countess'  fruit).  The  tree 
is  adapted  only  to  tropical  lowlands  and  to  regions  in  the  sub- 
tropics  which  are  practically  free  from  frost.  At  Miami, 
Florida,  the  mature  tree  has  been  killed  by  a  temperature  of 
26.5°  above  zero. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  DATE 

Plates  IX-X 

"HONOR  your  maternal  aunt,  the  palm,"  said  the  prophet 
Muhammad  to  the  Muslims ;  "  for  it  was  created  from  the  clay 
left  over  after  the  creation  of  Adam  (on  whom  be  peace  and  the 
blessings  of  God!)."  And  again,  "There  is  among  the  trees 
one  which  is  preeminently  blessed,  as  is  the  Muslim  among  men ; 
it  is  the  palm." 

It  is  in  this  reverential  aspect  that  the  Semitic  world  has 
always  regarded  the  date  palm;  and  with  sound  reason,  for 
its  economic  importance  to  the  desert  dweller  as  the  source 
of  both  food  and  shelter  is  even  greater  than  that  of  the  coconut 
palm  to  the  Polynesian. 

Only  in  recent  years,  however,  have  oriental  methods  of 
date-culture  been  scientifically  examined  and  tested  by  horti- 
culturists. By  far  the  greater  part  of  this  work  must  be 
credited  to  investigators  in  the  United  States.  The  first 
modern  importation  to  this  country  was  of  palms  rooted  in 
tubs,  shipped  from  Egypt  to  California  in  1890.  Better  methods 
of  shipping  offshoots  were  gradually  worked  out,  and  intro- 
ductions from  all  parts  of  the  world  have  been  made  in  ever- 
increasing  numbers  in  the  last  quarter  of  a  century. 

Meanwhile,  continued  study  has  been  given  to  methods  of 
culture,  with  the  result  that  the  problems  of  the  rooting  of 
offshoots  and  the  ripening  of  the  fruit,  which  were  at  first 
serious  sources  of  loss,  have  been  brilliantly  solved,  and  many 
others  adequately  dealt  with.  This  work  has  been  done  by 

196 


THE   DATE  197 

the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  the  experiment 
stations  of  California  and  Arizona,  and  many  private  growers ; 
and  any  history  of  the  progress  of  scientific  date-culture  will 
certainly  record  the  names  of  such  pioneers  as  Bruce  Drum- 
mond,  David  Fairchild,  R.  H.  Forbes,  George  E.  Freeman, 
Bernard  Johnston,  Fred  N.  Johnson,  Thomas  H.  Kearney, 
Silas  C.  Mason,  James  H.  Northrop,  F.  O.  Popenoe,  Paul 
Popenoe,  Walter  T.  Swingle,  and  A.  E.  Vinson. 

As  a  result  of  the  work  not  only  of  the  Americans  but  of 
French  horticulturists  in  North  Africa  and  English  in  Egypt 
and  India,  the  culture  of  the  date  palm  is  to-day  perhaps  better 
understood  than  that  of  any  other  fruit  of  which  this  volume 
treats.  There  is  room,  however,  for  immense  improvement  in 
method  in  practically  all  of  the  older  date-growing  regions,  and 
the  introduction  of  more  scientific  culture  will  add  greatly  to 
the  national  wealth  in  many  parts  of  the  Orient. 

Such  an  important  date-growing  country  as  Egypt  does  not 
now  produce  enough  dates  for  its  own  consumption;  for  al- 
though it  is  a  moderate  exporter  it  is  still  more  of  an  importer 
of  low-grade  dates  from  the  Persian  Gulf.  The  markets  of 
North  America  and  Europe  have  scarcely  been  touched. 
Before  the  Great  War  the  annual  importation  into  New  York 
was  thirty  to  forty  million  pounds,  —  only  five  or  six  ounces  a 
head  of  the  country's  population.  This  is  a  ridiculously  low 
rate  of  consumption  for  a  fruit  possessing  the  food-value  of  the 
date,  and  which  can  be  produced  so  cheaply.  There  would 
seem  to  be  no  reason  why  it  should  not  become  an  integral  part 
of  the  diet  of  American  families,  being  eaten  not  as  a  dessert 
or  luxury  only,  but  as  a  source  of  nourishment.  So  regarded 
the  market  is  almost  unlimited,  and  considering  how  few  are 
the  areas  available  for  growing  first-class  dates,  over-production 
seems  hardly  possible. 

The  date  palm  characteristically  consists  of  a  single  stem  with 
a  cluster  of  offshoots  at  the  base  and  a  stiff  crown  of  pinnate 


198     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

leaves  at  the  top.  It  reaches  a  maximum  height  of  about  100 
feet.  If  the  offshoots  are  allowed  to  grow,  the  palm  eventually 
becomes  a  large  clump  with  a  single  base. 

The  plant  is  dioecious  in  character,  i.e.,  staminate  and  pis- 
tillate, or  male  and  female,  flowers  are  produced  by  separate 
individuals.  The  inflorescence  is  of  the  same  general  character 
in  both  sexes,  —  a  long  stout  spathe  which  bursts  and  discloses 
many  thickly  crowded  branchlets.  Upon  these  are  the  small, 
waxy-white,  pollen-bearing  male  flowers,  or  the  greenish  female 
blossoms  in  clusters  of  three.  After  pollination,  two  out  of  each 
three  of  the  latter  usually  drop,  leaving  only  one  to  proceed  to 
maturity.  Chance  development  of  a  blossom  that  has  not  been 
pollinated  occasionally  gives  rise  to  unfounded  rumors  of  the 
discovery  of  seedless  dates;  genuine  seedless  varieties  have, 
however,  been  credibly  reported. 

The  fruit  varies  in  shape  from  round  to  long  and  slender, 
and  in  length  from  1  to  3  inches.  While  immature  it  is  hard 
and  green ;  as  it  ripens  it  turns  yellow,  or,  in  some  varieties,  red. 
The  flesh  of  the  ripe  fruit  is  soft  and  sirupy  in  some  varieties, 
dry  and  hard  in  others.  In  many  kinds,  including  most  of 
those  that  ripen  early,  the  sugar-content  never  attains  sufficient 
concentration  to  prevent  fermentation;  the  fruit  of  such 
varieties  must,  therefore,  be  eaten  while  fresh. 

In  cultivation  about  90  per  cent  of  the  male  palms  are  usually 
destroyed,  since  they  can  bear  no  fruit. 

The  presence  of  offshoots  around  the  base  is  one  of  the  simplest 
ways  to  distinguish  the  date  palm,  botanically  known  as 
Phoenix  dactylifera,  L.,  from  the  wild  palm  of  India  (Phoenix 
syhestris,  Roxb.)  and  the  Canary  Island  palm  (P.  canariensis, 
Hort.) ;  from  the  latter,  which  is  often  grown  in  the  United 
States  for  ornamental  purposes,  it  may  also  be  distinguished 
by  its  more  slender  trunk,  and  by  its  leaves  being  glaucous 
instead  of  bright  green. 

Phoenix  dactylifera   is   commonly   supposed,    following    the 


THE   DATE  199 

study  of  O.  Beccari,1  to  be  a  native  of  western  India  or  the 
Persian  Gulf  region.  Evidently,  long  before  the  dawn  of 
history,  it  was  at  home  in  Arabia,  where  the  Semites  seem  to 
have  accorded  it  religious  honors  because  of  its  important 
place  in  their  food  supply,  its  dioecious  character,  and  the  in- 
toxicating drink  which  was  manufactured  from  its  sap,  and 
which  in  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  is  called  "the  drink  of  life." 

Traditions  indicate  that  when  the  Semites  invaded  Babylonia 
they  found  in  that  country  their  old  friend  the  date  palm, 
particularly  at  Eridu,  the  Ur  of  the  Chaldees  (Mughayr  of 
modern  maps)  whence  Abram  set  out  on  his  migration  to 
Palestine.  It  is  even  suggested  that  the  Semitic  immigrants 
settled  at  Eridu,  which  was  then  a  seaport,  on  account  of  the 
presence  of  the  date  palms,  one  of  which  was  for  many  centuries 
a  famous  oracle-tree.  Several  competent  orientalists  see  in  the 
date  palm  of  Eridu  the  origin  of  the  Biblical  legend  of  the 
Garden  of  Eden. 

In  very  early  times  the  palm  had  become  naturalized  in 
northern  India,  northern  Africa,  and  southern  Spain.  From 
Spain  it  was  brought  to  America  a  few  centuries  ago. 

In  the  last  quarter  of  a  century,  United  States  governmental 
and  private  investigators  have  visited  most  of  the  date-growing 
regions  of  the  Old  World  in  search  of  varieties  for  introduction 
into  this  country,  where,  in  California  and  Arizona,  may  now  be 
found  assembled  all  the  finest  ones  that  cultivation,  ancient 
and  modern,  has  yet  produced. 

Orthodox  Muslims  consider  that  the  dates  of  al-Madinah,  in 
Arabia,  are  the  best  in  the  world,  partly  for  the  reason  that 
this  was  the  home  of  the  prophet  Muhammad,  who  was  himself 
a  connoisseur  of  the  fruit.  Unbiased  judgment,  however,  com- 
monly yields  the  palm  to  the  district  of  Hasa,  in  eastern  Arabia, 
where  the  delicious  variety  Khalaseh  grows,  watered  by  hot 
springs.  The  district  of  greatest  commercial  importance  is 

1  Malesia,  ill. 


200     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

that  centering  at  Basrah,  on  the  conjoined  Tigris  and  Euphrates 
rivers,  a  region  which  contains  not  less  than  8,000,000  palms 
and  supplies  most  of  the  American  market. 

The  region  around  Baghdad,  while  less  important  commer- 
cially, contains  a  larger  number  of  good  varieties  than  any  other 
locality  known.  Date  cultivation  by  Arabs  is  most  scientifi- 
cally carried  on  in  the  Samail  Valley  of  Oman  (eastern  Arabia), 
where  alone  the  Fardh  dates  of  commerce  are  produced. 

Serious  attempts  to  put  the  date  industry  of  northwestern 
India  on  a  sound  basis  are  being  made,  and  with  good  prospects 
of  success.  Western  Persia  and  Baluchistan  produce  some  poor 
dates  and  incidentally  a  few  good  ones. 

In  Egypt  there  are  nearly  10,000,000  palms,  of  which  seven- 
tenths  are  widely  scattered  over  Upper  Egypt.  Most  of  them 
are  seedlings  and  practically  all  are  of  the  "dry"  varieties.  On 
the  whole,  the  Egyptian  sorts  are  inferior. 

The  Saharan  oases  of  Tripoli,  Tunisia,  and  Algeria  contain 
many  varieties,  of  which  one  (Deglet  Nur)  is  as  good  as  any  in 
the  world,  and  is  largely  exported  not  only  to  Europe  but  to  the 
United  States,  where  it  is  marketed  under  the  name  of  "  Dattes 
Muscades  du  Sahara."  Morocco  grows  good  dates  in  the  Tafila- 
let  oases  only,  whence  the  huge  fruits  of  one  variety  (Majhul) 
are  shipped  to  Spain,  England,  and  other  countries.  The  date 
palms  of  southern  Spain  are  seedlings  and  bear  inferior  fruit. 
Elsewhere  about  the  Mediterranean  the  palm  is  grown  mainly 
as  an  ornamental  plant. 

Intelligent  culture  of  the  date  palm  is  now  being  attempted 
in  some  of  the  dry  parts  of  Brazil,  where  it  promises  to  attain 
commercial  importance.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  date  will 
succeed  commercially  in  any  moist  tropical  region,  although  in 
isolated  instances  successful  ripening  of  fruit  has  been  reported 
in  southern  India,  Dominica  (British  West  Indies),  Zanzibar, 
and  southern  Florida. 

A  large  area  in  northern  Mexico,  not  yet  developed,  is  un- 


THE   DATE  201 

doubtedly  adapted  to  this  culture ;  but  experimental  attempts 
with  it  on  the  Rio  Grande  in  Texas  have  been  abandoned. 
Arizona  and  California  offer  the  best  fields  for  date-growing 
in  the  United  States,  and  in  the  Coachella  Valley  of  California 
(a  part  of  the  Colorado  River  basin)  conditions  are  particularly 
favorable.  Residents  of  this  valley  are  not  exceeding  the  truth 
in  asserting  it  to  be  the  center  of  scientific  date-growing  at  the 
present  time. 

Dates  consist  mainly  of  sugar,  cellulose,  and  water.  An 
average  sample  of  fruits  on  the  American  market  will  show  in 
percentages  : l  carbohydrates  70.6  per  cent,  protein  1 .9  per  cent, 
fat  2.5  per  cent,  water  13.8  per  cent,  ash  (mineral  salts)  1.2  per 
cent,  and  refuse  (fiber)  10.0  per  cent.  Cane-sugar  is  found  in 
dates ;  in  a  few  varieties  this  is  partly  or  wholly  inverted  by  the 
time  the  fruit  is  fully  ripe. 

A  diet  of  dates  is  obviously  rich  in  carbohydrates  but  lacking 
in  fats  and  proteins.  It  is,  therefore,  by  no  accident  that  the 
Arabs  have  come  to  eat  them  habitually  with  some  form  of 
milk.  This  combination  makes  an  almost  ideal  diet,  and  some 
tribes  of  Arabs  subsist  on  nothing  but  dates  and  milk  for  months 
at  a  time. 

By  Arabs,  as  well  as  by  Europeans,  the  date  is  commonly 
eaten  uncooked.  Unsalted  butter,  clotted  cream,  or  sour  milk 
is  thought  to  "bring  out  the  flavor''  and  render  the  sugar  less 
cloying.  The  commonest  way 'of  cooking  dates  is  by  frying 
them,  chopped,  in  butter. 

For  native  consumption  around  the  Persian  Gulf  and  in 
India,  immature  dates  are  boiled  and  then  fried  in  oil.  Jellies 
and  jams  are  made  from  dates,  and  the  fruit  is  also  preserved 
whole.  Again,  they  may  be  pounded  into  a  paste  with  locusts 
(grasshoppers)  and  various  other  foodstuffs.  The  soft  kinds 
are  tightly  packed  into  skins  or  tins,  when  they  are  easily 
transported  and  will  keep  indefinitely. 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bull.  28. 


202     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

Various  beverages  are  made  by  pouring  milk  or  water  over 
macerated  dates  and  letting  slight  fermentation  take  place. 
The  sap  of  the  plant  provides  a  mild  drink  resembling  coconut 
milk,  which  when  fermented  becomes  intoxicating.  From  cull 
dates  a  strongly  alcoholic  liquor  is  distilled,  which,  flavored 
with  licorice  or  other  aromatics,  becomes  the  famous  (or  rather 
perhaps,  infamous)  arrak,  of  which  many  subsequent  travelers 
have  confirmed  the  verdict  of  the  sixteenth-century  voyager 
Pedro  Teixeira,  himself  probably  no  strict  water-drinker,  who 
w  said  of  it,  "This  is  the  strongest  and  most  dreadful  drink  that 
was  ever  invented,  for  all  of  which  it  finds  some  notable 
drinkers." 

CULTIVATION 

While  the  date  palm  grows  luxuriantly  in  a  wide  range  of 
warm  climates,  it  is,  for  commercial  cultivation,  adapted  only 
to  regions  marked  by  high  temperature  combined  with  low 

\/  humidity.  Properly  speaking,  it  belongs  to  the  arid  subtropical 
zone.  A  heavy  freeze  will  kill  back  the  leaves,  but  the  plant 
may  nevertheless  be  as  healthy  as  ever  in  a  year  or  two.  Thus, 
date  palms  have  withstood  a  temperature  of  only  5°  above 
zero  and  have  borne  satisfactory  crops  in  subsequent  years. 
Ellsworth  Huntington  speaks  of  seeing  the  date  palm  in  Persia 
where  twenty  inches  of  snow  lay  on  the  ground ;  many  genera- 
tions of  natural  selection  in  such  an  environment  would  doubt- 
less produce  a  hardy  race,  but  such  a  region  would  scarcely  be 
thought  adapted  to  commercial  date-growing. 

At  the  other  climatic  extreme,  the  date  palm  apparently  finds 
no  limit,  being  at  its  best  where  the  summer  temperature 

\l  stays  about  100°  for  days  and  nights  together.  The  combina- 
tion of  warm  days  with  cool  nights  is  unsatisfactory;  unless 
there  is  a  prolonged  season  during  which  high  temperatures 
prevail  night  and  day,  the  best  varieties  of  dates  will  not  ripen 
successfully. 


THE   DATE  203 

Humidity  is  an  important  factor  with  many  varieties.  Dates 
coming  from  the  Sahara  usually  demand  a  dry  climate;  yet 
the  Coachella  Valley  in  California  has  sometimes  proved  too 
dry,  and  the  fruit  has  shriveled  on  the  tree  unless  irrigation 
was  given  while  it  was  ripening.  Persian  Gulf  and  Egyptian 
varieties  will  endure  more  humidity,  since  they  come  from  the 
seacoast  or  near  it.  Dew  at  night  or  rain  coming  late  in  the 
season  when  the  dates  are  softening  is  almost  ruinous  to  the 
crop,  for  which  reason  dates  cannot  be  produced  satisfactorily 
in  some  parts  of  Arizona.  In  regions  of  India  where  the  summer 
rains  begin  in  July,  it  has  been  possible  to  bring  dates  to  maturity 
before  the  rains  arrive. 

In  general,  the  best  varieties  require :  (1)  a  long  summer, 
hot  at  night  as  well  as  in  the  daytime ;  (2)  a  mild  winter,  with 
no  more  than  an  occasional  frost ;  (3)  absence  of  rain  in  spring 
when  the  fruit  is  setting;  and  (4)  absence  of  rain  or  dew  in 
the  fall  when  the  fruit  is  ripening.  In  regions  lacking  any  of 
these  characteristics,  date-growing  will  be  profitable  commer- 
cially only  if  special  care  is  taken  to  secure  suitable  varieties 
and  to  develop,  by  experiment,  proper  methods  of  handling 
them. 

Date  palms  grow  well  in  the  stiff  clays  of  the  Tigris-Euphrates 
delta,  in  the  adobe  soils  of  Egypt,  in  the  sand  of  Algeria,  and  in 
the  sandy  loam  of  Oman  and  of  California.  No  one  type  of 
soil  can  be  asserted  to  be  necessary.  Thorough  drainage  and 
aeration  of  the  soil  are  desirable,  but  even  in  these  regards  the 
palm  will  stand  considerable  abuse,  and  is  found  to  grow  fairly 
well  in  places  where  the  ground-water  level  is  comparatively 
near  the  surface.  Naturally,  however,  the  palm  responds  to 
good  treatment  as  do  other  plants.  On  the  whole,  it  is  probably 
best  suited  on  a  well-drained  sandy  loam. 

The  palm's  tolerance  of  alkali  has  been  noted  from  very  early 
times,  and  has  led  Arab  writers  to  believe  that  it  throve  best  in 
alkaline  soil.  This  is  unlikely.  Dates  can  indeed  be  grown 


204     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

successfully  in  ground  the  surface  of  which  is  white  with  alkaline 
efflorescence,  provided  the  lower  soil  reached  by  the  roots  is 
less  salty ;  but  it  is  probable  that  the  limit  of  tolerance  is  some- 
where about  3  per  cent  of  alkalinity,  and  the  grower  who  looks 
for  the  best  results  should  not  plant  on  soil  whose  total  alkaline- 
/  content  exceeds  one-half  of  1  per  cent.  Naturally,  old  date 
palms  will  stand  more  alkali  than  young  ones.  It  should  be 
noted  that  the  so-called  black  alkali,  consisting  of  carbonates 
of  sodium  and  potassium,  is  more  harmful  than  the  more  or  less 
neutral  chlorids,  sulfates,  and  nitrates  of  sodium,  potassium, 
and  magnesium  which  go  by  the  name  of  white  alkali. 

If  the  irrigating  water  is  free  from  alkalinity,  it  will,  of 
course,  help  to  counteract  any  alkali  present  in  the  soil ;  whereas 
the  grower  who  needs  to  irrigate  with  brackish  water  must 
plant  his  palms  in  fairly  alkali-free  soil.  Desert  landowners 
sometimes  calculate  that  soil  which  is  too  salty  for  anything  else 
is  good  enough  for  a  date  plantation.  This  is  short-sighted 
reasoning.  Date-growing  is,  when  rightly  conducted,  so 
profitable  that  it  is  worth  giving  the  best  conditions  available, 
and  the  wise  grower  will  plant  his  palms  in  his  best  soil.  The 
ground  should  be  tested  to  a  depth  of  six  or  eight  feet  to  deter- 
mine its  alkali-content,  particularly  if  there  is  salt  evident  on 
the  surface.  Unless  at  least  one  stratum  of  alkali-free  soil  is 
found  not  far  from  the  surface,  the  ground  should  not  be  used 
for  date  palms. 

It  is  the  custom  in  the  United  States  to  plant  date  palms  50 
to  the  acre.  The  grower  with  plenty  of  land  may  find  that  40  to 
the  acre  (33  feet  apart  each  way)  is  more  convenient,  Arabs 
plant  them  much  closer  but  do  not  cultivate  their  plantations 
frequently.  The  question  of  spacing  is  affected  both  by  the 
nature  of  the  soil  and  by  the  variety  planted;  according  to 
Bruce  Drummond,  such  kinds  as  Saidi  and  Thuri  give  the  best 
results  if  spaced  35  or  38  feet  apart. 

Drummond  gives  the  following  advice  about  planting : 


THE   DATE  205 

"The  rooted  offshoot  when  ready  for  transplanting  should  be  pruned 
from  three  to  five  days  before  removing  from  the  frame.  The  new 
growth  should  be  cut  back  to  one-half  the  original  height,  leaving 
from  three  to  five  leaf  stubs  to  support  the  expanded  crown  of  leaves. 
The  holes  in  the  field  should  be  3  ft.  in  diameter  and  3  ft.  deep, 
with  from  12  to  16  in.  of  stable  manure  placed  in  the  bottom  of 
each,  with  6  in.  of  soil  on  top,  then  irrigate  thoroughly.  The  rooted 
palm  when  removed  from  the  nursery  should  carry  a  ball  of  earth 
large  enough  to  protect  the  small  fibrous  roots  from  exposure  to  the 
sun  or  dry  winds.  The  average  depth  for  planting  should  be  16  in., 
but  this  may  be  varied  somewhat  with  the  size  of  the  shoot.  In 
any  case,  the  depth  should  be  as  great  as  can  be  without  danger  of 
covering  the  bud. 

"It  is  not  advisable  to  transplant  rooted  offshoots  later  than  June. 
April  and  May  are  considered  the  best  months  of  the  entire  year  for 
the  transplanting  of  either  young  or  old  date  palms. 

"In  southern  California,  where  the  dry  winds  occur  from  March  to 
June,  the  transplanted  palms  should  be  irrigated  thoroughly  every 
week ;  in  sandy  soil  two  irrigations  a  week  should  be  given  until  new 
strong  growth  is  established." 

Arabs  usually  follow  the  basin  method  of  irrigation,  and  it  has 
been  satisfactory  in  many  other  parts  of  the  world.  The  most 
skillful  American  growers  who  irrigate  in  basins  make  them  15 
feet  square  and  a  foot  deep,  filling  them  with  a  loose  mulch  of 
straw  or  stable  manure. 

Most  American  growers,  however,  prefer  to  irrigate  in  furrows, 
and  use  no  mulch.  The  function  of  the  mulch  in  reducing 
evaporation  is  covered  by  giving  a  thorough  cultivation  with  a 
surface  cultivator  or  spring-toothed  harrow  as  soon  as  the  ground 
has  dried  out  enough  to  be  workable.  This  involves  cultivation 
of  the  ground  every  week  or  two. 

Adequate  fertilization  of  the  soil  is  absolutely  necessary  in 
order  to  make  date  palms  produce  fruit  as  heavily  as  commercial 
growers  desire  and  at  the  same  time  yield  well  in  offshoots. 
Nitrogen-gathering  cover-crops  are  much  in  favor,  sesbania 
or  alfalfa  being  preferred  in  California.  The  long  roots  of  the 
latter  are  useful  to  break  up  any  hardpan  or  layer  of  hard  silt 
which  may  be  present.  Many  growers  plant  garden-truck 


206     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

between  the  rows  of  palms,  especially  while  the  latter  are  young 
and  making  no  financial  return. 

The  soil  in  which  date  palms  are  usually  grown  is  of  a  kind 
that  benefits  by  the  incorporation  of  rough  material,  and  stable 
manure  is,  therefore,  the  fertilizer  of  first  choice.  Wheat-straw 
or  similar  loose  stuff  is  frequently  added  with  advantage.  An 
annual  application  of  fertilizer  is  required  in  most  localities, 
and  if  the  soil  is  sandy  the  grower  must  be  more  liberal.  For 
palms  producing  offshoots,  half  a  cubic  yard  a  year  is  advised ; 
for  older  palms  a  full  yard  is  desirable  :  both  in  addition  to  such 
cover-crop  as  the  grower  may  select. 

In  regard  to  irrigation,  it  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  soil 
must  be  kept  moist  during  the  entire  year,  and  that  the  roots 
of  the  palm  go  deep.  The  character  of  the  soil  must  be  carefully 
and  experimentally  studied  before  the  grower  can  be  certain 
that  he  has  arrived  at  the  correct  method  for  irrigation.  The 
amount  of  water  that  the  palm  can  stand  in  well-drained  land 
is  strikingly  illustrated  in  the  great  plantings  around  Basrah, 
where  fresh  water  is  backed  into  the  gardens  by  tidal  flow,  so 
that  there  are  two  automatic  irrigations  each  day  throughout 
the  year. 

In  the  Coachella  Valley,  with  furrow  irrigation,  a  twenty- 
four-hour  flow  each  twelve  days  from  April  to  November  has 
generally  been  satisfactory,  although  in  many  soils  weekly 
irrigation  is  required.  During  the  winter  the  rainfall  usually 
suffices.  Each  application  of  fertilizer  must  be  followed 
promptly  by  several  irrigations. 

Pruning  is  not  so  important  with  date  palms  as  with  many 
fruit-trees.  Dead  leaves  should  be  removed  from  young  palms,, 
and  if  the  top  growth  is  heavy  the  two  lower  rows  of  leaves  may 
be  removed  when  the  palm  is  four  years  old.  Regular  pruning 
should  begin  about  the  sixth  year,  after  which  one  row  of  leaves 
is  usually  removed  at  each  midwinter.  Drummond  advises 
that  "the  leaves  should  not  be  pruned  higher  than  the  fruit 


THE   DATE  207 

stems  of  the  former  crop,  which  will  leave  about  four  rows  of 
leaves  below  the  new  fruit  stems,  or  approximately  30  to  36 
expanded  leaves." 

PROPAGATION 

The  date  palm  can  be  propagated  in  only  two  ways :  by 
seed,  and  by  the  offshoots  or  suckers  which  spring  up  around 
the  base  or  sometimes  on  the  stem  of  the  palm  until  it  attains  an 
age  of  ten  to  twenty  years. 

Seedlings  are  easily  grown,  but  offer  little  promise  to  the 
commercial  grower.  Half  of  the  plants  will  be  males,  and 
among  the  females  there  will  be  such  a  wide  variation  that 
no  uniformity  of  pack  or  quality  can  be  secured.  In  regions 
with  a  large  proportion  of  seedling  palms,  such  as  Spain  and 
parts  of  Egypt,  there  is  practically  no  commercial  date-culture. 
Most  growers  in  California  plant  a  few  seedlings  for  windbreak 
or  ornamental  purposes.  These  yield  a  supply  of  males,  but 
males  can  be  secured  better  by  growing  offshoots  from  male 
palms  of  known  value. 

The  multiplication  of  the  date  palm,  therefore,  is  reduced 
in  practice  to  the  propagation  of  offshoots,  and  skill  or  lack 
thereof  in  this  regard  will  determine  largely  the  grower's  success 
or  failure  at  the  outset. 

In  California  at  the  present  time  the  yield  of  offshoots  is 
almost  as  valuable  as  that  of  fruit,  and  growers,  therefore, 
desire  to  secure  as  many  offshoots  of  their  best  varieties  as 
possible.  For  this  purpose  ample  fertilization  and  irrigation 
must  be  supplied.  After  the  fourth  or  fifth  year  of  a  palm's 
life,  the  owner  can  usually  take  at  least  two  offshoots  a  year 
from  it  for  a  period  of  ten  years.  The  best  size  for  offshoots 
at  removal  is  when  they  weigh  from  ten  to  fifteen  pounds  (say 
5  to  6  inches,  is  greatest  diameter).  The  best  season  for  the 
purpose  is  during  February,  March,  or  April. 


208     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

Four  or  five  days  before  the  offshoots  are  to  be  removed 
from  the  mother-palm,  their  inner  leaves  should  be  cut  back 
one-half  and  the  outer  leaves  two-thirds  of  their  length.  It 
will  be  well  worth  while  to  have  a  special  chisel  made  for  re- 
moving offshoots.  It  should  have  a  cutting  bit  of  the  best  tool 
steel,  5  inches  wide  by  7  inches  long,  one  side  flat,  the  reverse 
beveled  for  2  inches  on  the  sides  as  well  as  on  the  cutting  edge. 
The  chisel  should  have  a  handle  of  soft  iron  3  feet  long  and  1^ 
inches  in  diameter,  such  as  can  be  hammered  with  a  sledge- 
hammer. The  delicate  operation  of  cutting  is  described  by 
Bruce  Drummond,  who  is  the  best  American  authority  on  the 
culture  of  the  palm,  as  follows : 

"To  cut  the  offshoots  from  the  tree  the  flat  side  of  the  chisel  should 
always  be  facing  the  offshoot  to  be  cut.  Set  the  chisel  well  to  the  side 
of  the  base  of  the  offshoot  close  to  the  main  trunk.  Drive  it  in  with  a 
sledge  until  below  the  point  of  union  with  the  parent  trunk ;  then  by 
manipulating  the  handle  the  chisel  is  easily  loosened  and  cuts  its  way 
out.  Next  reverse  and  cut  from  the  opposite  side  of  the  shoot  until 
the  two  cuts  come  together.  This  operation  will  in  most  cases  sever 
the  offshoot  from  the  trunk.  No  attempt  to  pry  the  offshoot  from  the 
tree  should  be  made,  as  the  tissues  are  so  brittle  that  the  terminal  bud 
may  be  ruined  by  checking  or  cracking.  In  cutting  offshoots  directly 
at  the  base  of  the  palm  the  soil  should  be  dug  away  until  the  base  of  the 
offshoot  is  located  and  enough  exposed  to  show  the  point  of  union  with 
the  mother  plant.  Then  the  chisel  can  be  set  without  danger  of  cutting 
the  roots  of  the  parent  tree  so  much  as  to  injure  or  retard  its  growth. 
The  connection  of  the  offshoot  on  such  varieties  as  Deglet  Nur  is  very 
small,  and  there  is  no  necessity  of  cutting  deeply  into  the  trunk  to  sever 
the  offshoot  from  the  tree." 

Once  separated  from  its  parent,  the  moist  offshoot  requires 
a  period  of  seasoning  before  it  is  dry  enough  to  be  planted 
without  danger  of  fermentation.  Offshoots  from  the  base  of  a 
palm  are  usually  softer  and  sappier  than  those  growing  some 
distance  above  ground.  The  evaporation  should  amount  to 
12  or  15  per  cent  of  the  total  weight,  which  will  require  at  least 
ten  to  fifteen  days  to  effect.  Offshoots  are  usually  left  where 
cut,  on  the  ground  beneath  the  palm,  to  season. 


THE   DATE  209 

The  Arabs  plant  offshoots  at  once  in  their  permanent  loca- 
tions in  the  orchard,  but  the  best  results  will  be  obtained  by  first 
rooting  the  young  plants  in  a  shed  or  frame  where  the  two 
necessary  conditions  of  high  temperature  and  high  humidity  can 
be  maintained.  In  California  this  is  often  done  cooperatively. 

A  common  type  of  shed  for  an  individual  grower  is  12  by  20 
feet  in  size  with  side  walls  6  and  7  feet  high  respectively,  present- 
ing a  roof-slope  to  the  sun.  The  sides  are  usually  of  boards 
covered  with  tarred  paper  and  the  roof  of  8-  or  10-ounce  canvas. 
In  such  a  shed  on  an  ordinary  California  summer  day,  the 
temperature  will  be  about  115°  and  the  humidity  should  be 
about  75. 

The  soil  inside  the  shed  should  be  a  light  sandy  loam,  well 
drained.  Ten  inches  of  the  top  soil  should  be  removed  and 
replaced  with  fresh  stable  manure,  well  packed,  on  which  2 
inches  of  soil  should  be  replaced.  After  a  thorough  flooding, 
the  bed  should  be  allowed  to  steam  for  a  week,  and  then  be 
flooded  again,  whereupon  it  is  ready  for  the  offshoots.  These 
should  be  planted  about  8  inches  deep  ;  in  any  case  the  bud  must 
be  above  danger  of  flooding.  During  the  summer  the  bed 
must  be  flooded  at  least  twice  a  week,  to  keep  the  humidity  at  as 
high  a  point  as  possible.  The  offshoots  must  be  kept  in  it  until 
they  are  thoroughly  rooted  and  have  half  a  dozen  new  leaves. 
This  may  require  one  year  or  may  need  several  years. 

The  causes  that  may  lead  to  failure  with  offshoots  are  sum- 
marized by  Drummond  as :  "  (1)  improper  selection  of  the 
location  for  the  nursery  bed ;  (2)  failure  to  construct  the  frame 
so  nearly  air-tight  as  to  insure  the  necessary  humidity  and  high 
temperature;  (3)  improper  methods  of  cutting  and  pruning, 
and  the  neglect  of  seasoning  before  planting  in  the  nursery-bed ; 
and  (4)  the  neglect  of  irrigation  when  necessary  and  failure 
to  apply  water  properly.  The  points  above  mentioned  are  all 
essential  to  success,  and  to  neglect  one  and  observe  the  others 
may  lead  to  as  great  a  failure  as  to  neglect  them  all."  On  the 


210     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 


other  hand,  by  using  the  proper  care  growers  frequently  succeed 
in  making  90  to  95  per  cent  of  their  offshoots  take  root. 

After  they  are  removed  to  the  open  field,  the  young  palms 
should  be  protected  by  wrapping  during  the  following  winter 
from  the  possibility  of  freezing,  as  they  are  tender  at  first. 
Newspaper  is-  as  good  as  anything  for  the  purpose;  canvas, 

burlap,  and  palm-leaves  are  also 

used. 

•V 

For  security,  the  orchardist 
should  allow  one  or  two  male 
date  palms  for  each  acre  of  fruit- 
bearing  trees.  Care  should  be 
taken  to  secure  males  that  flower 
early  in  the  season  and  yield 
abundant  fertile  pollen;  sterility 
is  common. 

The  female  palm  ordinarily 
blossoms  between  February  and 
June  (in  California  usually  dur- 
ing March  and  April).  Flowers 
appearing  later  than  May  1  are 
not  worth  pollinating,  so  far  as 
commercial  production  is  con- 
cerned. Artificial  pollination 
has  been  practiced  since  the 
dawn  of  history,  and  offers  no 
difficulties. 

The  flowers  of  the  two  sexes  can  be  distinguished  readily 
(Fig.  28).  The  branchlets  of  the  male  inflorescence  are  only 
about  6  inches  long,  and  are  densely  clustered  at  the  end  of 
the  axis,  while  those  of  the  female  are  several  times  as  long  and 
less  densely  clustered.  The  male  blossoms  are  waxy  white  in 
color,  the  female  more  yellowish ;  while  also  the  latter  are 
much  the  less  closely  crowded  together  on  the  branchlets. 


FIG.  28.  On  the  left,  a  sprig  of 
staminate  or  pollen-bearing  flowers 
of  the  date  palm ;  on  the  right,  pis- 
tillate flowers  which  will,  if  properly 
pollinated,  develop  into  fruits. 


THE   DATE  211 

The  presence  of  pollen  in  the  male  flower  is  in  most  cases 
easily  to  be  detected  by  shaking  a  cluster  of  the  blossoms. 

As  soon  as  the  spathe  containing  the  pollen-bearing  flowers 
opens,  it  should  be  cut  and  put  into  a  large  paper  bag  to  dry,  the 
bag  being  stored,  open,  in  a  dry  room.  Thoroughly  dry  pollen 
will  retain  its  vitality  for  many  years,  and  a  small  quantity 
should  be  kept  in  a  bottle  from  year  to  year,  as  a  precaution. 
In  case  of  need  it  can  be  used  with  a  wad  of  cotton. 

The  pistillate  flowers  should  be  pollinated  as  soon  as  the 
spathes  crack  open,  the  plantation  being  inspected  every  day 
or  two  with  this  in  view.  The  operation  is  preferably  carried 
out  about  midday.  The  split  female  spathe  is  held  open,  and  a 
sprig  from  the  male  flower  gently  shaken  over  it  and  then  tied, 
open  flowers  downward,  at  the  top  of  the  female  cluster.  A 
single  pollination  with  one  sprig  is  enough  for  each  cluster 
unless  rain  follows  within  twenty-four  hours,  in  which  case 
the  operation  should  be  repeated.  The  grower  should  keep 
the  situation  well  in  hand. 

The  grower  must  not  let  his  young  palms  bear  too  many 
dates,  particularly  if  he  wants  them  to  produce  offshoots  at  the 
same  time.  Part  of  the  female  spadices  (flower-stalks)  should, 
therefore,  be  cut  off.  In  most  cases  a  palm  may  be  allowed 
to  bear  its  first  two  bunches  of  fruit  in  its  fourth  year,  and  three 
or  four  bunches  in  each  of  the  next  two  years.  If  even  a  full- 
grown  palm  is  allowed  to  bear  to  its  limit  in  any  year,  it  is  likely 
to  bear  less  the  following  season. 

In  case  the  grower  should  find  himself  absolutely  without 
date  pollen  at  a  time  when  his  pistillate  trees  are  flowering, 
he  may  have  recourse  to  the  pollen  of  some  other  Phoenix,  or 
even  of  a  different  genus  of  palms,  Chamserops,  Washingtonia, 
or  whatever  it  may  be.  This  will  often  enable  him  to  save 
part,  if  not  all,  of  the  crop. 


212     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

YIELD  AND  SEASON 

Most  varieties  of  date  palm,  if  properly  cared  for,  will  begin 
to  bear  in  the  fourth  year,  and  should  yield  a  considerable 
return  in  the  fifth  and  succeeding  years.  Under  Arab  treat- 
ment they  usually  take  longer.  References  in  the  Code  of 
Hammurabi  (about  2000  B.C.)  indicate  that  the  Babylonians 
at  that  time  could  secure  a  paying  crop  in  the  fourth  year ;  if 
so,  they  were  better  cultivators  than  their  modern  descendants. 

Beginning  with  two  small  bunches,  the  grower  may  allow 
his  palms  to  bear  an  increasing  amount  each  year  until  maximum 
is  reached.  After  the  fifth,  sixth,  or  seventh  year,  100  pounds 
or  thereabouts  to  a  tree  can  be  maintained  steadily  without 
difficulty  by  most  varieties,  and  one  or  two  offshoots  a  year  will 
still  be  produced,  given  proper  fertilization  and  irrigation. 
In  many  cases  even  larger  yields  can  be  obtained.  If,  however, 
the  growing  palm  is  not  given  proper  culture,  for  instance  is 
allowed  to  carry  a  full  load  of  offshoots,  and,  simultaneously,  to 
bear  all  the  fruit  that  it  can,  it  tends  to  become  an  intermittent 
bearer,  bringing  in  a  large  crop  one  year  and  little  or  nothing 
the  next.  This  should  be  avoided  by  eliminating  the  conditions 
named. 

The  season  of  ripening  is  from  May  to  December,  depending 
on  variety  and  location.  Fresh  dates  as  early  as  May  can  be 
secured  in  favored  locations  in  Arabia,  where  certain  early 
kinds  are  grown.  They  have  not  yet  been  produced  so  early  in 
the  United  States,  where  the  first  dates  do  not  ripen  until  July. 
In  many  regions  very  late  varieties  will  carry  fruit  into  mid- 
winter. In  California  and  at  Basrah  the  height  of  the  season  is 
September;  in  Egypt,  August;  in  western  Arabia,  July;  in 
Algeria,  September  or  early  October.  As  a  general  rule,  the 
dates  of  best  quality  are  late  in  ripening  and  the  early  dates 
are  soft  varieties  which  must  be  consumed  fresh  as  they  lack 
the  necessary  amount  of  sugar  to  keep  without  fermenting. 


THE   DATE  213 

American  growers  will  find  an  advantage  in  fairly  early  varieties 
(other  considerations  agreeing),  as  the  crop  can  thus  be  disposed 
of  without  competition,  say  before  November  1,  at  about 
which  time  dates  from  Persian  Gulf  or  North  African  sources 
can  be  put  on  the  market,  possibly  at  lower  prices. 

PICKING  AND  PACKING 

The  picking  process  offers  no  particular  problems,  although 
the  methods  are  not  the  same  with  all  varieties.  Usually  two 
persons  can  pick  together  conveniently,  one  holding  the  basket 
and  the  other  gathering  the  dates  and  placing  them  in  it. 
Under  favorable  conditions,  some  varieties  will  mature  a  whole 
bunch  so  evenly  that  it  can  be  removed  entire  without  loss, 
but  in  many  cases  it  is  necessary  to  pick  out  the  different 
"threads"  carrying  dates,  and  cut  them  separately,  leaving 
those  whose  fruit  is  not  yet  mature  for  another  day.  It  is 
advisable,  with  kinds  that  permit  of  it,  to  leave  the  calyx  on 
the  fruit,  since  if  this  is  pulled  off  it  opens  an  avenue  for  the 
entrance  of  insects  and  dirt.  Bunches  left  to  ripen  on  the 
tree  frequently  need  to  be  protected  by  a  bag  of  cheese-cloth  or 
similar  material,  to  keep  off  birds  and  insects. 

Dates  grown  for  home  use  need  no  treatment  after  picking 
unless  it  be  a  washing  to  remove  the  dust.  If  they  are  to  be 
kept  for  some  time,  they  may  well  be  pasteurized  to  free  them 
of  insect  eggs  and  the  bacteria  of  fermentation  and  decay. 
Small  quantities  of  fruit  can  be  treated  successfully  in  the  oven 
of  a  cookstove,  pains  being  taken  by  regulating;  the  aperture 
of  the  door,  to  keep  the  temperature  between  180°  and  190° 
for  three  hours.  This  may  slightly  alter  the  taste ;  sterilization 
by  exposure  overnight  to  the  fumes  of  carbon  bisulfide  is  easy 
and  causes  no  change  of  flavor. 

There  are  many  advantages  in  ripening  dates  artificially 
rather  than  leaving  them  to  mature  on  the  tree;  hence  some 


214     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

method  of  artificial  ripening  has  been  practiced  in  most  date- 
growing  countries  since  the  time  of  the  earliest  written  records. 
Much  careful  experimentation  has  been  done  in  this  country, 
first  by  the  Arizona  Experiment  Station  and  later  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  As  a  result,  such 
simple,  satisfactory,  and  inexpensive  methods  of  maturing  dates 
have  been  worked  out  that  the  commercial  grower  will  do  well 
to  rely  on  them.  The  exact  process  differs  with  the  variety 
and  with  the  conditions  under  which  the  dates  have  to  ripen ; 
for  the  precise  technique  advisable  in  his  case  the  grower  must 
either  refer  to  those  who  have  had  the  experience  he  needs, 
or  experiment  on  a  few  dates  for  himself,  after  he  has  grasped 
the  general  principles. 

As  W.  T.  Swingle  points  out,  a  date  is  botanically  mature, 
or  "tree  ripe"  as  horticulturists  say,  as  soon  as  it  reaches 
full  size  and  the  seed  is  fully  developed.  At  this  stage,  however, 
the  date  is  still  astringent  and  not  eatable.  Following  this 
comes  a  process  that  may  be  called  "ripening  for  eating," 
consisting  of  complex  chemical  transformations  by  which  the 
sugars  are  altered  and  the  tannin  deposited  in  insoluble  form 
in  "  giant  cells."  This  final  ripening  is  brought  about  by  the 
combination  of  heat  and  a  certain  degree  of  humidity. 

The  principle  underlying  modern  methods  of  artificial  ripening 
is,  therefore,  to  expose  the  dates  to  a  constant  high  temperature, 
while  holding  them  in  the  humid  atmosphere  which  is  created 
by  the  moisture  they  naturally  give  off  as  they  dry  and  wrinkle. 

For  this  purpose  the  dates  are  picked  when  they  first  begin 
to  soften.  Most  varieties  at  this  stage  show  translucent  spots 
while  the  remainder  of  the  berry  is  still  hard  and  remains  bright 
red  or  yellow  in  color.  Dates  taken  from  the  tree  in  this  condi- 
tion will  ripen  successfully  in  three  or  four  days  if  they  are 
packed  loosely,  stems  and  all,  into  a  tightly  closed  box  and  left 
at  ordinary  room  temperature,  the  room  being  closed  at  night 
to  keep  out  cold  air.  Commercial  growers  provide  a  special 


THE   DATE  215 

house,  or  a  room  built  in  the  packing-shed  for  this  purpose. 
This  is  so  constructed  as  to  be  air-tight  when  closed,  so  that  the 
temperature  can  be  maintained  at  an  even  figure,  without  varia- 
tion of  more  than  a  degree  or  two,  by  means  of  an  electric  light 
or  a  lamp  with  thermostat  attachment  such  as  is  used  in  the 
incubators  of  poultry  men.  Under  such  conditions,  dates  will 
be  brought  to  a  beautiful  even  maturity  and  practically  without 
loss  by  keeping  them  from  twenty-four  to  seventy-two  hours 
at  a  temperature  of  110°  to  120°. 

The  skillful  grower  will  control  further  the  ripening  of  his 
dates  by  irrigation.  In  some  climates,  like  that  of  Upper 
Egypt  and  of  the  Coachella  Valley  in  some  seasons,  a  typically 
"soft"  date  like  Deglet  Nur  will  mummify  on  the  palm,  as  it 
matures,  until  it  becomes  a  "dry"  date.  This  can  be  avoided 
by  keeping  the  palms  well  irrigated  while  the  dates  are  ripen- 
ing. On  the  other  hand,  "soft"  varieties  sometimes  "go  to 
pieces"  and  ferment  on  the  tree,  because  of  too  much  moisture ; 
in  this  case  the  soil  must  be  kept  dry  during  the  ripening  season. 

The  packing  of  dates  is  a  matter  for  the  grower's  own  taste, 
or  for  standardization  by  the  cooperative  association  to  which  he 
may  belong.  Good  dates  of  standard  varieties  are  usually 
packed  in  layers  in  one-pound  cardboard  boxes,  like  sweet- 
meats. In  California,  where  home-grown  dates  bring  fancy 
prices,  great  pains  are  taken  with  this  finest  quality  of  fruit, 
which  is  easily  retailed  at  $1  a  pound. 

Most  dates  worth  marketing  in  the  United  States  are  worth 
packing  in  cartons.  In  Arizona,  berry-boxes  have  been  used. 
The  American  standard  for  bulk  shipment  is  the  lug-box  of 
30  to  40  pounds'  capacity.  It  is  important,  in  any  case,  that  the 
pack  be  uniform,  both  in  size  and  variety ;  otherwise  the  grower 
can  expect  to  receive  only  "cull"  prices. 

Many  varieties,  such  as  Zahidi,  ripen  well  in  the  bunch  and 
adhere  indefinitely.  It  is  probable  that  a  profitable  trade  can 
be  developed  in  marketing  entire  bunches  of  these,  which  the 


216     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

retail  dealer  can  display  in  his  store  as  he  does  a  bunch  of 
bananas.  Dates  of  inferior  quality  can  be  worked  up  into 
various  by-products,  such  as  "date  butter,"  or  sweetmeats, 
or  may  be  sold  to  bakers  and  confectioners.  Culls  are  used  in 
the  Orient  for  the  distillation  of  arrak,  or  as  feed  for  live-stock. 
Soft  early  dates,  which  in  many  cases  are  of  a  beautiful  color 
as  well  as  delicious  flavor  but  which  lack  keeping  quality,  prob- 
ably could  be  sold  in  crates  as  are  berries  and  be  similarly 
handled  as  perishable  fruits.  Marketing  should  be  carried  on 
through  a  growers'  cooperative  association,  which  can  guard  the 
interests  of  all  by  insisting  on  proper  standards. 

For  a  bearing  plantation  with  fifty  palms  to  the  acre,  100 
pounds  of  fruit  to  a  tree  each  year  is  a  conservative  estimate  of 
the  yield.  This  means  5000  pounds  of  fruit  an  acre  each  year, 
the  retail  value  ranging  from  2  cents  a  pound  in  the  Orient  to 
$1  a  pound  in  the  United  States.  Growers  in  the  Coachella 
Valley  have  been  able  for  some  years  to  sell  practically  all  the 
good  dates  they  produce  at  25  cents  to  75  cents  a  pound  at  the 
\j  plantation.  Such  a  price  is  not  likely  to  be  maintained,  since 
dates  of  many  varieties  can  be  grown,  picked,  and  packed  at  a 
total  cost  of  not  more  than  5  cents  a  pound ;  but  there  are  no 
present  indications  of  an  early  decrease  in  price.  If  it  should 
fall  to  an  average  of  20  cents  a  pound,  this  would  still  allow  the 
satisfactory  gross  income  of  $1000  an  acre  from  fruit  alone, 
while  the  offshoots  of  good  varieties  at  present  prices  ($5  to  $15 
each)  are  a  valuable  factor  and  may  be  worth  almost  as  much 
to  the  orchardist  as  the  fruit.  Offshoots,  in  fact,  should  more 
than  pay  the  whole  cost  of  running  a  young  plantation,  leaving 
the  entire  proceeds  from  the  fruit  as  clear  profit. 

PESTS  AND  DISEASES 

There  are  two  scale  insects,  found  wherever  dates  grow,  that 
are    troublesome    to    the    orchardist.    The    Parlatoria    scale 


THE   DATE  217 

(Parlatoria  blanchardii  Targ.  Tozz.)  remains  dormant  during 
the  winter  but  is  active  in  summer,  sucking  the  plant  juices 
from  the  leaves  at  the  time  when  growth  is  most  vigorous. 
The  following  description  of  the  insect  is  condensed  from 
T.  D.  A.  Cockerell :  To  the  naked  eye  the  scales  appear  as 
small  dark  gray  or  black  specks,  edged  with  white.  If  the  scale 
is  lifted  by  means  of  a  pin  or  the  point  of  a  knife,  the  soft, 
plump  and  juicy  female,  of  a  rose-pink  color,  is  found  under- 
neath. The  male  scales,  which  are  rarely  seen,  are  much 
smaller  and  narrower  than  those  of  the  female.  About  the 
middle  of  March  the  female  lays  eggs;  the  larvae  hatch  a 
fortnight  later,  crawl  about  restlessly  for  a  time,  and  then 
settle  down  for  the  remainder  of  their  lives. 

The  treatment  is  by  dipping  the  offshoots  in  a  solution  of  1 
gallon  of  Cresolin,  4  gallons  of  distillate,  and  95  gallons  of  water. 
Mature  palms  may  be  sprayed  with  the  same  mixture.  By 
these  methods  this  scale  is  eventually  eliminated. 

The  more  dangerous  Marlatt  scale  (Phoenicococcus  marlatti 
Ckll.)  is  wine-colored,  and  secretes  a  white  waxy  substance. 
It  usually  lives  at  the  base  of  the  leaves,  "inside"  the  palm, 
where  it  is  almost  inaccessible,  coming  out  at  intervals  to  molt. 
It  can  be  destroyed  by  dipping  the  offshoots  and  following  this 
by  periodic  spraying. 

Date  palms  in  moist  regions  are  often  attacked  by  parasitic 
fungi,  which,  however,  yield  to  bordeaux  mixture  or  other 
standard  fungicides. 

In  some  regions  the  palm  is  attacked  by  a  borer  (Rhynco- 
phorus)  which,  if  not  destroyed,  is  fatal  to  the  tree.  The  only 
successful  treatment  seems  to  be  to  watch  for  the  intruder  and 
kill  it  before  it  has  penetrated  too  far.  Locusts,  grasshoppers, 
rats,  gophers,  ants,  bees,  wasps,  birds,  and  the  like  give  trouble 
in  various  localities.  The  treatment  resorted  to  against  these 
pests  in  connection  with  other  cultures  will  also  serve  for  the 
date  palm  orchard. 


218     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

Stored  dates  are  likely  to  become  infested  with  such  common 
enemies  of  stored  foods  as  the  fig-moth  (Epliestia  cautella 
Walker)  and  the  Indian  meal-moth  (Plodia  interpunctella 
Hiibner) .  The  best  protection  against  these  is  a  packing-house 
that  is  reasonably  insect-proof  and  is  fumigated  at  the  beginning 
of  each  season.  The  modern  methods  of  preparing  dates  for 
the  market  usually  include  some  system  of  disinfection  which 
kills  insect  eggs.  It  is  reported  that  in  Egypt  dates  for  export 
are  dipped  in  dilute  alcohol,  or  in  alcohol  and  glycerine.  "  Dry  " 
dates  can  be  scalded ;  "soft"  dates  are,  in  America,  frequently 
pasteurized  by  dry  heat  or  by  fumigation. 

VARIETIES  AND  CLASSIFICATION 

Several  thousand  varieties  of  dates  have  been  recognized, 
but  those  which  have  any  commercial  importance  are  limited 
to  a  few  score,  while  those  that  are  of  real  merit  number  only 
a  few  dozen,  since  many  kinds  owe  their  reputation  not  to 
excellence  of  flavor  but,  as  do  the  Elberta  peach  and  the  Ben 
Davis  apple,  to  good  shipping  and  keeping  qualities. 

Varieties  are  usually  classified  as  "soft"  (or  "wet")  and 
"dry."  Orientals  classify  them  by  color  (yellow  or  red, 
before  they  are  cured);  by  keeping  quality;  and  as  "hot" 
and  "cold,"  according  to  whether  a  long-continued  diet  of  them 
"burns"  the  stomach  or  not. 

The  classification  of  "soft"  and  "dry"  (which  sometimes 
has  been  complicated  and  confused  by  the  insertion  of  an  inter- 
mediate class  of  "semi-dry")  is  commercially  convenient,  but 
not  absolute;  for  practically  any  soft  date  may  become  a 
dry  date  under  certain  atmospheric  conditions,  and  most 
dry  dates  can  be  made  soft  by  proper  management  and  arti- 
ficial maturation. 

The  dry  dates  predominate  in  most  parts  of  North  Africa, 
including  Egypt,  being  preferred  by  the  nomads  because  they 


THE   DATE  219 

are  easily  packed  and  not  likely  to  spoil.  On  the  other  hand, 
practically  all  of  the  dates  which  the  world  recognizes  as 
valuable  are  soft  varieties.  In  the  following  list,  which  in- 
cludes the  most  important  kinds  from  throughout  the  world, 
there  is  only  one  unmistakably  dry  date  (Thuri),  which,  though 
recognized  as  good  in  its  Algerian  home,  is  given  a  place  in  this 
list  mainly  because  it  has  succeeded  particularly  well  in  Cali- 
fornia. There  are  three  others  (Asharasi,  Kasbeh,  and  Zahidi) 
that  would  probably  be  considered  dry,  but  cannot  be  un- 
equivocably  placed  in  that  class.  Asharasi  and  Kasbeh  are 
much  softer  than  the  typical  dry  date,  while  Zahidi  at  one  stage 
of  its  maturity  is  typically  soft,  and  is  widely  sold  in  that  condi- 
tion, although  if  left  long  enough  on  the  palm  it  becomes  actually 
a  dry  date.  All  the  other  varieties  in  the  list  are  typically  soft, 
but  most,  if  not  all,  of  them  will  be  converted  into  dry  dates  if 
left  to  ripen  on  the  trees  in  a  sufficiently  hot  and  dry  climate. 

The  American  and  European  markets  are  accustomed  only 
to  soft  dates,  and  as  most  of  the  good  varieties  are  soft,  growers 
will  naturally  give  attention  to  soft  kinds  by  preference.  A 
market  for  dry  dates,  in  America  at  least,  will  have  to  be  created 
before  any  large  quantity  can  be  sold.  Nevertheless,  Americans 
who  have  eaten  good  dry  dates  usually  like  them,  and  fre- 
quently consider  them  preferable  to  those  soft  dates,  such  as 
Malawi  and  Khadhrawi,  which  (often  under  the  trade  name  of 
Golden  Dates)  have  until  recently  been  almost  the  only  varieties 
on  the  American  market. 

Amri.  —  Form  oblong,  broadest  slightly  above  the  center  and 
bluntly  pointed  at  the  apex;  size  very  large,  length  2  to  2£  inches, 
breadth  1  to  \\  inches;  surface  deep  reddish  brown  in  color,  coarsely 
wrinkled;  skin  thick,  not  adhering  to  the  flesh  throughout;  flesh 
about  \  inch  thick,  coarse,  fibrous,  somewhat  sticky,  and  with  much 
rag  close  to  the  seed ;  flavor  sweet,  but  not  delicate ;  seed  oblong,  1  \  to 
1|  inches  long,  rough,  with  the  ventral  channel  broad  and  shallow, 
and  the  germ-pore  nearer  base  than  apex.  Season  late. 

More  extensively  exported  from  Egypt  than  any  other  variety. 
It  is  not,  however,  a  first-class  date.  It  is  large  and  attractive  in  appear- 


220     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

ance,  but  inferior  in  flavor.  The  keeping  and  shipping  qualities  are 
unusually  good.  Named  probably  from  Amr,  a  common  personal  name. 

Asharasi.  —  Form  ovate  to  oblong-ovate,  broadest  near  the  base 
and  pointed  at  the  apex ;  size  medium,  length  1|  to  If  inches,  breadth 
|  to  lj  inches;  surface  hard,  rough,  straw-colored  around  the  base, 
translucent  brownish  amber  toward  the  apex ;  skin  dry,  thin,  coarsely 
wrinkled ;  flesh  \  inch  thick,  at  basal  end  of  fruit  hard,  opaque,  creamy 
white  in  color,  toward  tip  becoming  translucent  amber,  firm;  flavor 
rich,  sweet,  and  nutty;  seed  oblong-elliptic,  pointed  at  apex,  f  to  f 
inch  long,  smooth,  the  ventral  channel  almost  closed,  and  the  germ-pore 
nearer  base  than  apex.  Ripens  midseason. 

Syn.  Ascherasi.  The  best  dry  date  of  Mesopotamia,  if  not  of 
the  world.  It  can  be  used  as  a  soft  date ;  having  always  some  trans- 
lucent flesh  at  the  apical  end  of  the  fruit,  it  has  by  some  writers  been 
classed  as  semi-dry.  Grown  principally  in  the  vicinity  of  Baghdad; 
now  also  in  the  United  States,  where  it  succeeds  well.  The  name  means 
Tall-growing. 

Deglet  Nur.  —  Form  slender  oblong  to  oblong-elliptic,  widest  near 
the  center  and  rounded  at  the  apex;  size  large,  length  1£  to  If  inches, 
breadth  f  to  |  inch ;  surface  smooth  or  slightly  wrinkled,  maroon  in 
color ;  skin  thin,  often  separating  from  the  flesh  in  loose  folds ;  flesh  J 
inch  thick,  deep  golden-brown  in  color,  soft  and  melting,  conspicuously 
translucent;  flavor  delicate,  mild,  very  sweet;  seed  oblong-elliptic, 
pointed  at  both  ends,  about  1  inch  long,  with  the  ventral  channel 
shallow  and  partly  closed,  the  germ-pore  at  center.  Season  late. 

Syns.  Deglet  Noor,  Deglet  en-Nour.  This  variety  is  considered  the 
finest  grown  in  Algeria  and  Tunisia,  where  its  commercial  cultivation  is 
extensive,  and  it  is  highly  esteemed  in  California,  where  it  holds  at 
present  first  rank  among  dates  planted  commercially.  Its  defects 
are  a  tendency  to  ferment  if  kept  for  several  months,  and  the  immense 
amount  of  heat  required  to  mature  it  properly.  The  name  is  properly 
transliterated  Daqlet  al-Nur,  meaning  Date  of  the  Light,  an  allusion 
to  its  translucency. 

Fardh.  —  Form  oblong,  widest  near  the  middle  and  rounded  at  the 
apex;  size  small  to  medium,  length  about  1£  inches,  breadth  about  f 
inch ;  surface  shining,  deep  dark  brown  in  color,  almost  smooth ;  skin 
rather  thin,  tender ;  flesh  |  to  J  inch  thick,  firm,  russet  brown ;  flavor 
sweet  with  a  rather  strong  after-taste;  seed  small,  length  f  inch. 
Ripens  midseason. 

Syn.  Fard.  This  is  the  great  commercial  date  of  Oman,  in  eastern 
Arabia.  It  has  recently  been  planted  in  California ;  American  markets 
are  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  fruit  through  the  large  importations 
which  are  annually  made  from  Oman.  While  inferior  in  quality  to 
many  other  varieties,  Fardh  holds  its  shape  well  when  packed  and 
keeps  well.  For  these  reasons  it  is  a  valuable  commercial  variety. 


THE   DATE  221 

According  to  modern  Omani  etymologists,  the  name  means  The 
Separated,  because  of  the  way  the  dates  are  arranged  in  the  bunch ;  but 
the  ancients,  who  are  entitled  to  more  credit,  spell  it  in  a  way  that 
means  The  Apportioned. 

Ghars.  —  Form  oblong  to  obovate,  narrowest  near  the  rounded 
apex;  size  large  to  very  large,  length  H  to  2  inches,  breadth  about  1 
inch ;  surface  somewhat  shining,  bay  colored ;  skin  soft  and  tender ; 
flesh  |  inch  thick,  soft,  sirupy,  slightly  translucent;  flavor  sweet  and 
rich ;  seed  oblong,  f  to  1  inch  long,  with  the  ventral  channel  deep  and 
sometimes  closed  near  the  middle,  and  the  germ-pore  at  center.  Season 
early. 

Syns.  Rhars,  R'ars.  One  of  the  commonest  soft  dates  in  North 
Africa,  esteemed  for  its  earliness  in  ripening,  its  productiveness,  and 
the  ability  of  the  plant  to  resist  large  amounts  of  alkali  and  much 
neglect.  In  California  it  has  proved  to  be  a  strong  grower,  but  the 
fruit  is  not  so  good  as  that  of  several  other  varieties,  and  also  ferments 
easily.  The  name  means  Vigorous  Grower. 

Halawi.  —  Form  slender-oblong  to  oblong-ovate,  broadly  pointed 
or  blunt  at  the  apex ;  size  large,  length  1£  to  If  inches,  breadth  about 
|  inch;  surface  slightly  rough,  translucent  bright  golden-brown  in 
color ;  skin  thin  but  rather  tough ;  flesh  \  to  T\  inch  thick,  firm,  golden- 
amber  in  color,  tender ;  flavor  sweet  and  honey-like,  but  not  rich ; 
seed  slender  oblong,  |  inch  long,  with  the  ventral  channel  broadly 
open.  Ripens  midseason. 

This  is  the  great  commercial  date  of  Mesopotamia,  and  probably  the 
most  important  variety  in  the  world,  as  regards  quantity  sold.  It  is 
grown  chiefly  around  Basrah,  at  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  It  has 
good  keeping  and  shipping  qualities,  but  is  not  esteemed  by  the  Arabs 
for  eating;  in  American  markets,  however,  it  is  preferred  to  several 
other  varieties  because  of  its  attractive  color.  Both  in  California  and 
in  Arizona  Halawi  has  succeeded  remarkably  well.  The  name  means 
The  Sweet. 

Hayani.  —  Form  oblong-elliptic,  broadest  slightly  below  the  center 
and  rounded  at  the  apex ;  size  very  large,  length  2  to  2\  inches,  breadth 
1  to  1J  inches;  surface  dark  brown  in  color,  smooth;  skin  thick, 
separating  readily  from  the  flesh ;  flesh  about  \  inch  thick,  light  brown 
in  color,  soft ;  flavor  sweet,  lacking  richness ;  seed  oblong,  sometimes 
narrowed  toward  the  apex,  \\  to  If  inches  long,  with  the  ventral 
channel  broad  and  deep,  and  the  germ-pore  usually  f  inch  from  the  base. 
Ripens  midseason. 

Syns.  Hayany,  Birket  al  Hajji,  Birket  el  Haggi,  Birket  el  Hadji,  and 
Birkawi.  One  of  the  most  satisfactory  Egyptian  dates  in  California 
and  Arizona.  It  is  precocious  and  prolific,  and  has  proved  to  be  more 
frost-resistant  than  many  other  varieties.  The  plant  is  unusually  orna- 
mental in  appearance.  The  variety  is  named  after  the  village  of  Hayan. 


222     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

Kasbeh.  —  Form  oblong-ovate,  widest  near  the  base  and  broadly 
pointed  at  the  apex;  size  large,  about  If  inches  long,  f  inch  broad; 
surface  golden-brown  to  chestnut  in  color ;  skin  thin  but  fairly  tough ; 
flesh  y3^  inch  thick,  firm,  but  never  hard,  tender ;  flavor  sweet,  slightly 
heavy  but  not  cloying ;  seed  oblong-elliptic,  almost  an  inch  long,  the 
ventral  channel  open  and  deep,  the  germ-pore  nearer  base  than  apex. 
Season  late. 

Syns.  Kesba,  Kessebi,  El  Kseba.  A  variety  of  ancient  origin,  exten- 
sively cultivated  in  Algeria  and  Tunisia.  Before  Deglet  Nur  came  into 
the  field  it  was  considered  the  finest  date  in  North  Africa.  It  is  valued 
in  California,  where  it  has  been  found  to  have  excellent  keeping  and 
shipping  qualities  as  well  as  good  flavor.  The  name  means  The  Profit- 
able. 

Khadhrawi.  —  Form  oblong  to  oblong-elliptic,  widest  near  the 
center  and  broadly  pointed  at  the  apex ;  size  medium  to  large,  length 
1£  to  If  inches,  breadth  f  to  |  inch ;  surface  translucent  orange-brown 
in  color,  overspread  with  a  thin  blue-gray  bloom;  skin  firm,  rather 
tough;  flesh,  •&  to  \  inch  thick,  firm,  translucent,  amber-brown  in 
color;  flavor  rich,  never  cloying;  seed  oblong-obovate  to  oblong- 
elliptic,  |  inch  long,  the  ventral  channel  narrow  or  almost  closed. 
Ripens  midseason. 

Syns.  Khadrawi,  Khudrawee.  One  of  the  most  important  commer- 
cial varieties  of  Mesopotamia,  ranking  second  only  to  Halawi.  It  is  a 
better  date  than  the  latter,  but  not  so  highly  esteemed  on  the  American 
market  because  of  its  slightly  darker  color.  In  California  it  has  been 
grown  with  great  success.  The  name  means  The  Verdant. 

Khalaseh.  —  Form  oblong  to  oblong-ovate,  broadest  near  the  center 
and  rounded  to  broadly  pointed  at  the  apex;  size  medium,  length  If 
to  If  inches,  breadth  f  to  |  inch;  surface  smooth,  orange-brown  to 
reddish  amber  in  color,  with  a  satiny  sheen ;  skin  firm,  but  tender ; 
flesh  I  inch  thick,  firm,  tender,  reddish  amber  in  color,  free  from  fiber ; 
flavor  delicate,  with  the  characteristic  date  taste  in  a  desirable  degree ; 
seed  oblong-elliptic,  pointed  at  both  ends,  f  to  |  inch  long,  the  ventral 
channel  almost  closed.  Ripens  midseason. 

Syns.  Khalasa,  Khalasi,  Khalas.  The  most  famous  date  of  the 
Persian  Gulf  region,  and  unquestionably  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world. 
It  is  grown  principally  at  Hofhuf  in  the  district  of  Hasa ;  a  few  palms 
have  been  planted  in  the  United  States,  and  have  produced  fruit  of 
superior  quality.  Khalaseh  likes  a  dry  situation  and  sandy  soil.  It  is 
not  a  heavy  bearer,  but  is  precocious.  The  name  means  Quintessence. 

Khustawi.  —  Form  oblong-oval,  broadest  near  center  and  rounded 
at  apex;  size  small  to  medium,  length  1  to  1|  inches,  breadth  f  to  $ 
inch;  surface  smooth,  glossy,  translucent  orange-brown  in  color; 
skin  thin  and  delicate ;  flesh  I  inch  thick,  soft  and  delicate  in  texture, 
translucent  golden-brown  in  color ;  flavor  unusually  rich  yet  not  cloy- 


THE   DATE  223 

ing,  with  the  characteristic  date  taste  in  a  desirable  degree ;  seed 
oblong-obovate,  f  inch  long,  pointed  at  both  ends,  with  the  ventral 
channel  open.  Ripens  midseason. 

Syns.    Khastawi,    Kustawi,    originally    Khastawani    (Persian).     A 
delicious  dessert  date  from  Baghdad.     It  has  proved  well  adapted  to 
conditions  in  the  date-growing  regions  of  America.     It  is  not  a  heavy 
bearer,  but  the  fruit  possesses  good  keeping  qualities.     The  name  means ' 
The  Date  of  the  Grandees. 

Majhul.  —  Form  broadly  oblong  to  oblong-ovate,  broadest  at 
center  to  slightly  nearer  base  and  broadly  pointed  at  apex ;  size  very 
large,  length  2  inches,  breadth  1^  inches;  surface  wrinkled,  deep 
reddish  brown  in  color ;  skin  thin  and  tender ;  flesh  f  inch  thick,  firm, 
meaty,  brownish  amber  in  color,  translucent,  with  no  fiber  around  seed ; 
flavor  rich  and  delicious ;  seed  elliptic,  1|  inches  long,  with  the  germ- 
pore  nearest  the  base  and  the  ventral  channel  almost  closed.  Season 
late. 

Syns.  Medjool,  Medjeheul.  A  variety  of  large  size  and  good  keeping 
qualities,  from  the  Tafilalet  oases  in  the  Moroccan  Sahara,  whence  the 
fruit  is  exported  to  Europe.  Probably  suited  only  to  the  hottest  and 
driest  regions  in  the  United  States.  The  name  means  Unknown. 

Maktum.  —  Form  broadly  oblong  to  oblong-obovate,  usually  broad- 
est near  center  and  rounded  at  the  apex ;  size  medium,  length  1£  to  1£ 
inches,  breadth  f  to  1  inch;  surface  somewhat  glossy,  translucent 
golden-brown  in  color ;  skin  firm,  wrinkled,  rather  thin ;  flesh  f  to  f 
inch  thick,  soft,  almost  melting,  light  golden-brown  in  color ;  flavor 
mild,  sweet,  similar  to  that  of  Deglet  Nur.  Season  late. 

Syn.  Maktoom,  originally  Makdum.  A  rare  variety  from  Mesopo- 
tamia which  has  proved  admirably  adapted  to  conditions  in  California, 
although  not  resistant  to  frost.  It  is  large  and  of  fine  quality.  The 
palm  is  a  vigorous  grower.  The  name  means  The  Bitten. 

Manakhir.  —  Form  oblong,  rounded  at  the  apex ;  size  very  large, 
length  2  to  2£  inches,  breadth  slightly  more  than  1  inch ;  surface  smooth, 
brownish  maroon  in  color,  with  a  purplish  bloom  ;  skin  thin  and  tender ; 
flesh  1  inch  thick,  soft  and  melting,  with  fiber  around  the  seed ;  flavor 
delicate,  resembling  that  of  Deglet  Nur ;  seed  oblong,  1  inch  long,  with 
the  germ-pore  nearer  the  base  and  the  ventral  channel  frequently 
closed.  Season  late. 

Syns.  Menakher,  Monakhir.  A  rare  and  large-fruited  variety  from 
Tunis,  of  which  only  a  few  palms  exist  in  the  United  States.  In  this 
country  it  is  not  a  date  of  the  best  quality.  The  name  means  The 
Nose  Date. 

Saidi.  —  Form  oblong-ovate,  broadest  near  the  base  and  blunt 
at  the  apex;  size  large,  length  1|  inches,  breadth  about  1  inch;  sur- 
face almost  smooth,  brownish  maroon  in  color,  overspread  with  a 
bluish  bloom;  skin  thin,  tender;  flesh  &  inch  thick,  red-brown  in 


224     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

color,  firm ;  flavor  very  sweet,  almost  cloying ;  seed  oblong-elliptic,  | 
inch  long,  the  germ- pore  slightly  nearer  the  base  and  the  ventral  channel 
almost  closed.  Ripens  in  midseason. 

Syns.  Saidy,  Wahi.  One  of  the  most  important  varieties  of  Upper 
Egypt.  It  is  not  considered  so  good  in  quality  as  some  of  the  Algerian 
and  Mesopotamian  varieties,  but  it  is  a  heavy  bearer,  though  it  requires 
a  hot  climate  to  ripen  perfectly.  The  name  indicates  that  it  comes 
from  Said  or  Upper  Egypt. 

Tabirzal.  —  Form  broadly  oblong-obovate,  broadest  below  center 
and  broadly  pointed  at  the  apex ;  size  medium,  length  If  to  1 1  inches, 
breadth  f  to  1|  inches;  surface  translucent  deep  orange-brown  in 
color,  with  a  blue-gray  bloom ;  skin  thin  and  tender,  coarsely  wrinkled ; 
flesh  £  inch  thick,  soft  and  tender,  translucent  orange-brown  in  color ; 
flavor  distinctive,  mild  and  pleasant,  sweet  but  not  cloying;  seed 
broadly  oblong,  f  to  f  inch  long,  with  the  ventral  channel  narrow. 
Season  late. 

One  of  the  best  dates  grown  at  Baghdad.  In  the  United  States  it 
is  little  known  as  yet.  Originally  Tabirzad  (Persian)  meaning  Sugar 
Candy. 

Thuri.  —  Form  oblong,  broadest  near  center  and  bluntly  pointed 
at  apex;  size  large,  length  If  inches,  breadth  f  inch;  surface  reddish 
chestnut  color,  overspread  with  a  bluish  bloom ;  skin  thin ;  flesh  T35 
inch  thick,  firm  and  nearly  dry  but  not  hard  or  brittle,  golden-brown 
in  color ;  flavor  sweet,  nutty  and  delicate ;  seed  oblong,  1  inch  long, 
the  ventral  channel  deep  and  partly  closed,  the  germ-pore  nearer  the 
base.  A  midseason  date. 

Syns.  Thoory,  Tsuri.  One  of  the  best  Algerian  dry  dates.  It  is 
large,  not  too  hard,  and  of  excellent  flavor;  the  palm  bears  heavily 
and  the  clusters  are  of  exceptional  size.  In  California  it  has  proved 
very  satisfactory.  The  name  means  The  Bull's  Date. 

Zahidi.  —  Form  oblong-obovate,  broadest  near  the  rounded  apex ; 
size  medium,  length  1£  inches,  breadth  |  inch ;  surface  smooth,  glossy, 
translucent  golden-yellow  in  color,  sometimes  golden-brown ;  skin 
rather  thick  and  tough ;  flesh  \  inch  thick,  translucent  golden-yellow 
close  to  the  skin,  whitish  near  the  seed,  soft,  meaty,  and  full  of  sirup ; 
flavor  sweet,  sugary,  and  not  at  all  cloying ;  seed  oblong,  £  inch  long, 
the  ventral  channel  open.  Season  early. 

Syns.  Zehedi,  Zadie,  originally  Azadi  (Persian).  A  remarkable 
date,  the  principal  commercial  variety  of  Baghdad.  It  can  be  used 
as  a  soft  date  (as  described  above)  or  as  a  dry  date,  depending  on  the 
length  of  time  it  is  allowed  to  remain  on  the  palm.  The  tree  is  vigorous, 
hardy,  resistant  to  drought,  and  prolific  in  fruiting.  The  name  means 
Nobility. 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE  PAPAYA  AND  ITS  RELATIVES 

THE  papaya  (sometimes  called  papaw)  and  the  passion- 
flowers are  closely  related,  and  the  fruit-bearing  kinds  are 
treated  together  in  this  chapter.  Some  botanists  place  them 
all  in  one  family  even  though  the  papaya  is  an  erect  plant  and 
the  passion-flowers  are  tendril-bearing  vines ;  but  recent  botan- 
ists separate  them  into  the  Caricacere  (or  Papayaceae)  and 
Passifloracea?.  In  botanical  structure,  the  fruits  are  very  sim- 
ilar, and  they  are  related  not  distantly  to  the  Cucurbitacea3 
(pumpkins  and  melons). 

THE  PAPAYA  (Plate  XI) 
(Carica  Papaya,  L.) 

"There  is  also  a  fruite,"  wrote  the  Dutch  traveler  Linschoten 
in  1598,  "that  came  out  of  the  Spanish  Indies,  brought  from 
beyond  ye  Philipinas  or  Lusons  to  Malacca,  and  fro  thence 
to  India,  it  is  called  Papaios,  and  is  very  like  a  Mellon.  .  .  and 
will  not  grow,  but  alwaies  two  together,  that  is  male  and 
female  .  .  .  and  when  they  are  diuided  and  set  apart  one  from 
the  other,  then  they  yield  no  fruite  at  all." 

The  facility  with  which  the  papaya  is  propagated  by  means 
of  its  seeds  made  possible  its  rapid  dissemination  throughout 
the  tropics,  when  once  the  Discovery  had  opened  up  routes 
of  travel  between  its  native  home  in  the  Western  Hemisphere 
and  the  regions  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  Polynesia  favorable  to  its 
growth.  In  many  places  it  early  attained  the  position  of  im- 
Q  225 


226     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

portance  among  cultivated  fruits  which  it  holds  at  the  present 
day.  Higgins  and  Holt  say  of  it :  "  Excepting  the  banana, 
there  is  no  fruit  grown  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands  that  means 
more  to  the  people  of  this  territory  than  the  papaya,  if  measured 
in  terms  of  the  comfort  and  enjoyment  furnished  to  the  people 
as  a  whole." 

It  may  fairly  be  said,  perhaps,  that  the  northern  cantaloupe 
is  replaced  in  Hawaii  and  other  tropical  regions  by  the  papaya, 
a  fruit  which,  in  its  better  varieties,  is  a  worthy  rival  of  the 
melon.  It  is  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  territory;  it  comes 
into  bearing  when  a  few  months  old ;  and  it  yields  most  abun- 
dantly of  its  handsome  fruits.  The  presence  of  inferior  varie- 
ties in  many  regions  has  detracted  from  the  prestige  of  the 
papaya,  but  its  intrinsic  merit  is  beyond  dispute.  It  is  the 
duty  of  tropical  horticulture  to  encourage  the  dissemination  of 
the  better  forms  and  further  to  improve  them  by  means  of 
breeding.  Considerable  attention  has  already  been  devoted 
to  this  subject,  but  much  remains  to  be  done.  The  rapidity 
with  which  seedlings  can  be  brought  to  fruiting  stage  makes 
papaya-breeding  a  much  less  tedious  process  than  is  the  case 
with  the  hard- wooded  tree-fruits. 

It  has  always  been  a  source  of  wonder  to  those  unfamiliar 
with  the  species  that  a  plant  so  large  as  a  mature  papaya  could 
be  produced  in  so  short  a  time.  The  poet  Waller  l  wrote  in 
1635  with  but  slight  exaggeration  of  the  literal  fact : 

"The  Palma  Christ!  and  the  fair  Papaw 
Now  but  a  seed  (preventing  Nature's  Law) 
In  half  the  circle  of  the  hasty  year, 
Project  a  shade,  and  lovely  fruits  do  wear." 

• 

The  papaya,  a  giant  herbaceous  plant  rather  than  a  tree, 
grows  to  a  height  of  25  feet,  and  is  often  likened  to  a  palm  in 
general  appearance,  although  there  is  no  botanical  relationship. 

1  Battle  of  the  Summer  Islands. 


THE  PAPAYA   AND  ITS  RELATIVES 


227 


The  trunk  bears  no  lateral  branches,  but  sometimes  divides  to 
form  several  erect  stems,  which  produce  at  their  tops  large 
deeply-lobed  leaves  sometimes  2  feet  across,  upon  hollow 
petioles  2  feet  or  more  in  length.  The  wood  is  fleshy,  the  bark 
smooth,  grayish  brown,  marked  by  conspicuous  leaf-scars. 

The  papaya  is  normally  dioecious  (Fig.  29)  and  produces  its 
flowers  in  the  uppermost  leaf- 
axils,  the  staminate  blossoms 
sessile  on  pendent  racemes  3  feet 
or  more  in  length,  the  pistillate 
ones  subsessile  and  usually  soli- 
tary or  in  few-flowered  corymbs. 
The  staminate  flowers  are  fun- 
nel-shaped, about  an  inch  long, 
whitish,  the  corolla  five-lobed, 
with  ten  stamens  in  the  throat ; 
the  pistillate  flowers  are  consid- 
erably larger,  with  five  fleshy 
petals  connate  toward  the  base, 
a  large,  cylindrical  or  globose, 
superior  ovary,  and  five  sessile 
fan-shaped  stigmas. 

The  fruit  is  commonly  spheri- 
cal or  cylindrical  in  form,  round 
or  obscurely  five-angled  in  trans- 
verse section,  from  3  up  to  20 
or  more  inches  in  length,  and 
sometimes  weighing  as  much 
as  20  pounds.  In  general  character  it  strongly  resembles 
a  melon;  the  skin  is  thin,  smooth  on  the  exterior,  orange- 
yellow  to  deep  orange  in  color;  the  flesh,  which  is  deep 
yellow  to  salmon-colored,  being  from  1  to  2  inches  thick 
and  inclosing  a  large,  sometimes  five-angled,  cavity,  to  the 
walls  of  which  are  attached  the  numerous  round,  wrinkled, 


FIG.  29.  Flowers  of  the  papaya : 
the  cluster  and  the  single  flower  to 
its  left  are  staminate  (male),  and  the 
larger  flower  to  the  right  is  pistillate 
(female).  Sometimes  the  organs  of 
both  sexes  are  found  in  the  same 
flower,  but  this  condition  cannot  be 
considered  normal.  (X  about  |) 


228     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

blackish  seeds,  the  size  of  small  peas,  inclosed  by  a  thin  gelat- 
inous aril. 

The  flavor  is  rather  sweet,  with  a  slight  musky  tang  which 
is  sometimes  objectionable  to  the  novice,  and  which  varies 
greatly  in  degree;  the  best  types  being  of  a  bland  agreeable 
taste  which  is  almost  sure  to  be  relished.  In  Brazil  the  flavor 
is  believed  to  be  improved  if  the  fruit  is  lightly  scored  when 
taken  from  the  tree,  and  then  allowed  to  stand  for  a  day  so 
that  the  milky  juice  may  run  out. 

The  native  home  of  the  papaya  is  known  to  be  in  tropical 
America,  but  the  exact  area  in  which  it  originated  has  not  been 
determined.  Jacques  Huber,  after  reviewing  the  evidence 
presented  by  Alphonse  DeCandolle  and  others,  reached  the 
conclusion  that  the  species  originally  came  from  Mexico. 
Count  Solms-Laubach,  who  monographed  the  Caricacese,  be- 
lieves that  the  cultivated  papaya  may  have  originated  as  a 
cross  between  some  of  the  species  of  Carica  native  to  Mexico. 

The  plant  is  now  widely  distributed.  In  nearly  all  parts  of 
tropical  America  it  is  one  of  the  common  fruits.  It  is  abun- 
dant in  India,  Ceylon,  and  the  Malay  Archipelago.  In  Hawaii 
it  probably  attains  greater  comparative  importance  than  in 
any  other  region.  It  is  common  in  Australia,  where  it  is  culti- 
vated as  far  south  as  Sydney. 

In  the  United  States  it  has  been  planted  in  Florida  and  Cali- 
fornia. It  is  entirely  successful  in  the  southern  part  of  Florida, 
but  in  California  its  cultivation  is  limited  to  the  most  protected 
situations,  and  even  there  the  fruit  produced  is  not  of  good 
quality. 

The  name  papaya  is  held  to  be  a  corruption  of  the  Carib 
ababai.  In  one  form  or  another  it  has  been  carried  around  the 
world;  papaia,  papeya,  and  papia  are  some  of  the  corrup- 
tions which  are  in  use.  The  English  name  papaw  is  widely 
employed,  but  in  the  southern  United  States  its  use  has  the  dis- 
advantage of  confusing  this  fruit  with  Asimina  triloba.  The 


THE  PAPAYA   AND  ITS   RELATIVES  229 

Portuguese  name,  current  in  Brazil,  is  mamdo  (probably  re- 
ferring to  the  mammiform  apex  of  the  fruit) ;  in  French  the 
fruit  is  called  papaye,  in  German  papaja,  and  in  Italian  papaia. 
Several  other  names  are  used  in  tropical  America,  notably 
fruta  de  bomba  in  Cuba,  lechosa  in  Porto  Rico,  melon  zapote  in 
parts  of  Mexico,  and  tree-melon  in  English-speaking  countries. 
Botanically  the  species  is  Carica  Papaya,  L. 

While  most  commonly  used,  perhaps,  as  a  breakfast-fruit, 
like  the  muskmelon  or  cantaloupe  in  northern  countries,  the 
papaya  can  be  prepared  in  numerous  ways.  In  Brazil  it  is 
served  as  a  dessert,  sliced,  with  the  addition  of  a  little  sugar  and 
whipped  cream.  As  a  salad,  in  combination  with  lettuce,  it  is 
excellent.  As  a  crystallized  fruit  it  is  good,  but  has  not  much 
character.  When  green  it  is  sometimes  boiled  and  served  as 
a  vegetable,  much  as  summer-squash  is  in  the  North.  It  can 
also  be  made  into  pickles,  preserves,  jellies,  pies,  and  sherbets. 
WThen  used  as  a  breakfast-fruit,  it  is  cut  in  halves  longitudinally, 
and  after  the  seeds  are  removed  served  with  the  addition  of 
lemon  juice,  salt  and  pepper,  or  sugar,  according  to  taste. 

The  fruit  of  the  papaya,  as  well  as  all  other  parts  of  the  plant, 
contains  a  milky  juice  in  which  an  active  principle  known  as 
papain  is  present.  This  enzyme,  which  was  first  separated  by 
Theodore  Peckholt,  greatly  resembles  animal  pepsin  in  its 
digestive  action,  and  in  recent  years  has  become  an  article  of 
commerce.  Aside  from  its  value  as  a  remedy  in  dyspepsia  and 
kindred  ailments,  it  has  been  utilized  for  the  clarification  of 
beer.  Its  digestive  action  has  long  been  recognized  in  the 
tropics,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  common  practice  of  the  natives, 
who  rub  the  juice  over  meat  to  make  it  tender,  or,  in  preparing 
a  fowl,  wrap  it  in  papaya  leaves  and  let  it  remain  overnight 
before  cooking  it. 

Much  has  been  written  concerning  the  preparation  and 
properties  of  papain.  Lengthy  accounts  will  be  found  in  the 
Philippine  Journal  of  Science,  Section  A,  January,  1915 ;  Agri- 


230     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

culture  (Habana,  Cuba),  April,  1917 ;  the  Tropical  Agricultur- 
ist (Colombo,  Ceylon)  No.  3,  1915;  and  the  American  Jour- 
nal of  Pharmacy,  1901. 

Alice  R.  Thompson  of  Hawaii  has  published  the  following 
analyses  of  several  different  seedling  strains  grown  at  Honolulu  : 


TABLE   IV.     COMPOSITION  OF  THE  PAPAYA 


STRAIN 

TOTAL 
SOLIDS 

ASH 

ACIDS 

PROTEIN 

TOTAL 
SUGARS 

FAT 

FIBER 

Trinidad  .     . 

12.14 

.53 

.06 

.43 

9.72 

.06 

.78 

South  Africa 

13.00 

.54 

.09 

.68 

10.73 

.07 

.81 

Honolulu  .     . 

12.20 

.56 

.07 

.50 

10.29 

.05 

.66 

Barbados 

11.72 

.48 

.06 

.46 

8.05 

.06 

.76 

Panama   .     . 

14.41 

.90 

.14 

.50 

11.12 

.25 

1.09 

The  sugar  found  in  the  papaya  is  principally  invert 
only  traces  of  sucrose  being  present. 


sugar, 


Cultivation. 


The  papaya  is  tropical  in  its  requirements,  but  it  can  be 
grown  in  regions  where  light  frosts  are  experienced.  It  prefers 
a  warm  climate  and  rich,  loamy,  well-drained  soil.  In  southern 
Florida  it  grows  best  on  hammock  soils,  but  it  is  successful  on 
"high  pine"  lands  if  properly  fertilized.  On  the  Florida  Keys 
the  plant  has  become  thoroughly  naturalized  and  springs  up 
wherever  a  clearing  is  made,  the  seeds  being  scattered  by  birds 
and  other  agencies.  While  commercial  papaya-culture  prob- 
ably should  not  be  attempted  north  of  Palm  Beach,  good  fruits 
are  occasionally  produced  in  the  central  part  of  the  state  when 
a  mild  winter  allows  the  plants  to  reach  fruiting  age  without 
injury. 

In  California  the  cool  nights  do  not  permit  the  fruit  to  mature 


THE  PAPAYA   AND  ITS  RELATIVES  231 

perfectly.  It  has  been  observed  in  the  tropics  that  papayas 
ripened  in  cool  weather  are  insipid  or  squash-like  in  flavor. 
The  best  situations  in  southern  California  are  the  protected  foot- 
hill regions,  where  the  heat  during  the  summer  months  is  more 
intense  than  on  the  seacoast.  An  old  tree  at  Hollywood,  near 
Los  Angeles,  bore  fruit  several  years,  but  finally  succumbed 
to  the  cold  rains  of  winter  which  cause  the  plants  to  rot  off  at 
the  base,  especially  if  the  drainage  is  in  the  least  defective. 

Higgins  and  Holt,  whose  bulletin  "The  Papaya  in  Hawaii"  1 
is  the  most  valuable  contribution  yet  made  to  the  literature  of 
papaya-growing,  have  the  following  to  say  concerning  climate 
and  soil : 

"In  regard  to  rainfall  and  moisture  requirements,  the  plant  is  able 
to  adapt  itself  to  a  wide  range  of  conditions,  and  when  established 
suffers  much  less  from  a  shortage  of  water  than  the  orange  or  the 
avocado,  but  makes  beneficial  use  of  a  large  amount  if  supplied.  Yet, 
withal,  it  is  one  of  the  most  insistent  plants  in  the  matter  of  drainage. 
In  waterlogged  soils  the  papaya  makes  a  spindling  growth  and  drops  its 
lower  leaves  prematurely,  while  the  remaining  f oliage  becomes  yellow, 
the  whole  plant  indicating  an  unhealthy  condition. 

"There  are  few,  if  any,  soils  in  which  the  papaya  will  not  grow  if 
aeration  and  drainage  are  adequately  supplied.  Most  of  the  plantings 
at  this  station  are  upon  soils  regarded  as  unsuitable  for  other  fruit 
trees  and  upon  which  the  avocado  is  a  failure.  .  .  .  They  are  very 
porous,  permitting  perfect  drainage  and  aeration.  Rich  soils  give  cor- 
respondingly better  and  more  permanent  results  if  they  permit  of  the 
free  passage  of  water  and  entrance  of  air." 

For  a  permanent  orchard,  the  plants  should  be  set  not  less 
than  10  feet  apart.  The  papaya  is  short-lived,  and  will  not 
usually  remain  in  profitable  bearing  more  than  three  to  five 
years.  That  it  is  extremely  simple  of  culture  is  proved  by  the 
ease  with  which  it  becomes  naturalized  in  tropical  regions, 
and  by  the  thriftiness  of  the  wild  plants  which  spring  up  every- 
where along  the  roadsides. 

1  No.  32  of  the  Hawaii  Exp.  Sta. 


232     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

P.  J.  Wester  writes  as  follows  regarding  the  planting  and  care 
of  papayas : 

"When  the  plants  have  attained  a  height  of  about  3  to  4  inches, 
they  are  ready  to  be  transplanted  to  the  place  where  they  are  intended 
to  grow. 

"Unless  the  transplanting  has  been  preceded  by  a  good  rain,  the 
plants  should  be  thoroughly  watered  before  they  are  removed  from  the 
seed-bed.  In  order  to  reduce  the  evaporation  of  water  from  the  plants 
until  they  are  well  established  in  their  new  quarters,  about  three- 
fourths  of  the  leafblades  should  be  trimmed  off. 

"In  transplanting,  take  up  the  plants  with  so  large  a  ball  of  earth 
that  as  few  roots  are  cut  or  disturbed  as  possible.  Do  not  set  out 
the  young  plant  deeper  in  the  new  place  than  it  grew  in  the  nursery ; 
firm  the  soil  well  around  the  roots,  making  a  slight  depression  around 
the  plant,  and  water  it  thoroughly. 

"  In  order  to  protect  the  tender  plant  from  the  sun  until  it  is  estab- 
lished, it  is  well  to  place  around  it  a  few  leafy  twigs  at  the  time  of 
planting.  It  is  well  to  set  out  three  plants  to  each  hill,  and  as  the 
plants  grow  up  and  fruit,  to  dig  out  the  males  or  the  two  poorest 
fruiting  plants. 

"If  the  plants  cannot  be  set  out  in  the  field  at  the  time  indicated, 
transplant  them  from  the  seed-bed  to  a  nursery,  setting  out  the  plants 
about  8  to  12  inches  apart  in  rows  a  yard  apart,  or  more,  to  suit  the 
convenience  of  the  planter.  While  the  best  plan  is  to  set  out  the  plants 
in  the  field  before  they  are  more  than  12  inches  tall,  the  plants  may  be 
transplanted  to  the  field  from  the  nursery  with  safety  after  they  are 
more  than  5  feet  high,  provided  that  all  except  young  and  tender  leaf- 
blades  are  removed,  leaving  the  entire  petiole,  or  leafstalk,  attached 
to  the  plant;  if  the  petiole  be  cut  close  to  the  main  stem,  decay 
rapidly  enters  it.  If  the  entire  petiole  is  left  it  withers  and  drops  and 
a  good  leaf  scar  has  formed  before  the  fungi  have  had  time  to  work 
their  way  from  the  petiole  into  the  stem  of  the  plant. 

"When  a  plant  has  grown  so  tall  that  it  is  difficult  to  gather  the 
fruit,  which  also  at  this  time  grows  small,  cut  off  the  trunk  about 
30  inches  above  the  ground.  A  number  of  buds  will  then  sprout  from 
the  stump,  and  will  form  several  trunks  that  will  bear  fruit  like  the 
mother-plant  in  a  short  time.  These  sprouts,  except  two  or  three, 
should  be  cut  off,  for  if  all  are  permitted  to  grow  the  fruit  produced 
will  be  small." 

When  first  set  out  in  the  field,  the  young  plants  should  be 
watered  every  day  or  two  ;  after  a  few  weeks  have  elapsed  and 
they  have  become  established,  waterings  may  be  less  frequent. 


THE  PAPAYA   AND  ITS  RELATIVES  233 

Mature  plants  should  be  irrigated  liberally  unless  rainfall  is 
abundant.  Since  they  are  gross  feeders,  stable  manure  or 
commercial  fertilizers  should  be  supplied  liberally.  This  is 
particularly  true  of  plants  which  are  grown  on  the  sandy  lands  of 
southeastern  Florida.  Organic  nitrogen  is  especially  desirable. 

Propagation. 

The  papaya  is  usually  propagated  by  seeds,  which  in  Florida 
should  be  sown  as  early  in  the  year  as  possible,  preferably  in 
January,  in  order  to  have  the  plants  in  bearing  by  the  follow- 
ing winter.  If  seeds  are  washed  and  dried  after  removal  from 
the  fruit,  and  stored  in  glass  bottles,  they  will  retain  their 
viability  for  several  years.  Higgins  and  Holt  say : 

"It  is  best  to  plant  the  seeds  in  a  well-drained,  porous  soil 
in  flats  or  boxes,  covering  them  about  half  an  inch  deep.  In 
from  two  to  six  weeks  the  seedlings  should  appear,  germina- 
tion being  hastened  by  heat.  In  the  open  in  cool  weather  the 
time  will  not  be  less  than  a  month,  but  in  a  warm  greenhouse 
it  may  be  shortened  to  two  weeks.  In  about  a  month  after 
germination  the  seedlings  should  be  large  enough  to  be  trans- 
ferred to  pots,  in  which  they  should  remain  for  another  month 
before  being  placed  in  the  orchard  or  garden." 

Wester  advocates  planting  in  seed-beds  and  transferring 
the  young  seedlings  directly  into  the  open  ground.  He  writes  : 

"  The  seed-bed  should  be  prepared  by  thoroughly  pulverizing 
the  soil  by  spading  or  hoeing  the  ground  well,  and  the  clearing 
away  of  all  weeds  and  trash.  Sow  the  seed  thinly,  about  1  to 
2  centimeters  apart,  and  cover  the  seed  not  more  than  1  centi- 
meter with  soil,  then  water  the  bed  thoroughly.  In  the  dry 
season  it  is  well  to  make  the  seed-bed  where  it  is  shaded  from 
the  hot  midday  rays  of  the  sun,  under  a  tree ;  or  it  may  be 
shaded  by  the  erection  of  a  small  bamboo  frame  on  the  top  of 
which  is  placed  grass  or  palm  leaves.  If  the  seed  is  planted 
during  the  rainy  season  a  shed  of  palm  leaves  should  always 


234     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

be  put  up  over  the  seed-bed  to  protect  the  seed  from  being 
washed  out  and  the  plants  from  being  beaten  down  by  the 
heavy  rains." 

Vegetative  propagation  of  the  papaya  by  two  means  has  been 
shown  to  be  possible,  but  it  is  not  yet  demonstrated  that  either 
of  these  methods  produces  satisfactory  plants.  Cuttings  are 
readily  grown,  but  they  develop  more  slowly  than  seedlings. 
Grafted  plants  are  more  rapid  in  growth  and  come  into  fruit 
early,  and  it  was  thought  at  one  time  that  this  method  offered 
great  possibilities ;  but  later  experience  has  shown  that  when 
propagated  by  this  means  in  Florida,  a  given  variety  degen- 
erates rapidly,  and  in  the  third  or  fourth  generation  from  the 
parent  seedling  the  grafted  plants  make  very  little  growth  and 
their  fruits  are  small  and  practically  worthless.  The  explana- 
tion of  this  behavior  has  not  been  found,  nor  is  it  known  whether 
it  will  occur  in  other  regions ;  but  its  effect  in  Florida  has  been 
to  do  away  with  grafting  and  cause  all  growers  to  return  to 
seed-propagation. 

In  order  that  those  who  are  interested  in  the  subject  may 
experiment  for  themselves,  a  brief  extract  is  given  here  from 
"The  Grafted  Papaya  as  an  Annual  Fruit  Tree,"  by  Fairchild 
and  Simmonds.1  These  investigators  found  that  seeds  of 
the  papaya,  when  planted  in  the  greenhouse  in  February, 
produce  young  seedlings  large  enough  to  graft  some  time  in 
March ;  that  these  grafted  trees,  which  can  be  grown  in  pots, 
when  set  out  in  the  open  ground  in  May  or  the  latter  part  of 
April,  make  an  astonishing  growth  and  come  into  bearing  (in 
Florida)  in  November  or  December ;  that  they  continue  bear- 
ing throughout  the  following  spring  and  summer,  and  if  it  is 
advisable,  can  be  left  to  bear  fruit  into  the  following  autumn. 

"After  a  seedling  begins  to  fruit,  it  does  not  normally  produce  side- 
shoots  which  can  be  used  for  grafting.  It  has  been  observed  for 
some  time,  however,  that  if  the  top  of  a  bearing  tree  is  cut  or  broken 

1  Circ.  119,  Bur.  Plant  Industry. 


THE  PAPAYA   AND  ITS  RELATIVES  235 

off  accidentally,  a  large  number  of  shoots  begin  to  form,  one  from  the 
upper  part  of  each  leaf  scar ;  that  is,  the  axil  of  the  leaf.  This  takes 
place  three  or  four  weeks  after  the  tree  is  decapitated.  It  is  these 
small  shoots,  of  which  as  many  as  50  or  more  may  be  produced  by  a 
single  tree,  that  are  used  in  grafting  the  papaya.  One  of  these  shoots 
is  taken  when  a  few  inches  long  and  about  the  diameter  of  a  lead  pencil, 
is  sharpened  to  a  wedge  point,  the  leaf  surface  reduced,  and  inserted 
in  a  cleft  in  a  young  seedling  papaya  plant  which  has  been  decapi- 
tated when  6  to  10  inches  high  and  split  with  an  unusually  sharp,  thin 
grafting  knife.  At  this  age  the  trunk  of  the  young  seedling  has  not 
yet  formed  the  hollow  space  in  the  center.  It  is  not  necessary  for  the 
stock  and  the  cion  to  be  of  equal  size ;  the  cion  should  not,  however, 
be  larger  than  the  stock.  After  inserting  the  cion,  the  stock  is  tied 
firmly,  but  not  tightly,  with  a  short  piece  of  soft  twine.  The  grafted 
plant  should  be  shaded  for  a  few  days  after  the  grafting  has  been  done 
and  the  twine  should  be  removed  on  the  sixth  or  seventh  day.  The 
best  success  has  been  secured  in  these  experiments  by  grafting  potted 
seedlings  in  the  greenhouse,  or  under  the  shade  of  a  lath-house,  pre- 
sumably because  the  stock  can  be  kept  in  good  growing  condition 
under  these  circumstances." 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  features  of  the  papaya  is  the 
irregularity  which  it  presents  in  the  distribution  of  the  sexes. 
Normally  it  is  dioecious,  with  staminate  and  pistillate  (male 
and  female)  flowers  produced  on  different  plants.  Cross- 
pollination  is  necessary  to  enable  the  pistillate  flowers  to  de- 
velop fruits.  This  is  effected  by  insects.  Among  seedling 
plants  the  number  of  staminates  is  usually  greater  than  that  of 
pistillates.  Only  a  few  of  the  former  being  necessary  as  pol- 
linizers  (certainly  not  more  than  one  in  ten),  this  excess  of 
staminates  is,  from  the  grower's  standpoint,  an  objectionable 
feature. 

In  addition  to  the  staminate  and  pistillate  forms,  many 
intermediates  have  been  observed  in  which  both  sexes  are  com- 
bined in  one  plant.  Staminate  flowers  may  occur  with  rudi- 
mentary stigmas  and  ovaries  which  give  rise  to  small  worth- 
less fruits ;  and  there  is  a  hermaphrodite  type  which  regularly 
produces  perfect  flowers,  is  self-pollinated,  and  yields  excellent 
fruits.  Numerous  other  forms  have  been  described  (see  the 


236    MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

bulletin  by  Higgins  and  Holt),  but  the  importance  of  these  is 
lessened  by  the  fact  that  during  the  lifetime  of  a  plant  it  may 
change  from  one  form  to  another. 

In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  plants  which  develop  from 
the  seed  as  pure  pistillates  will  retain  their  sex  without  modi- 
fication, but  plants  which  commence  life  as  pure  staminates  may 
undergo  a  change  of  sex.  It  has  been  asserted  that  a  change 
of  sex  may  be  induced  by  topping  the  male  tree  or  breaking  its 
roots.  M.  J.  lorns,  who  studied  this  question  in  Porto  Rico, 
reached  the  conclusion  that  other  conditions  than  the  loss  of 
the  terminal  bud  must  be  present  to  induce  a  change  of  sex, 
and  he  suggested  that  the  trees  may  pass  through  definitely 
recurring  cycles  of  development,  and  be  subject  to  the  change 
only  at  certain  periods.  L.  B.  Kulkarni,1  who  investigated 
the  matter  in  India,  came  to  the  belief  that  change  of  sex  is 
not  in  any  way  connected  with  the  removal  of  the  terminal 
bud.  He  found  that  male  plants,  in  the  course  of  their  develop- 
ment, may  present  a  number  of  different  sex-combinations,  as 
follows : 

First  stage :  Staminate  flowers  only. 
Second :  Staminate,  with  a  few  hermaphrodite  flowers. 
Third :  A  few  staminate,  with  many  hermaphrodite  flowers. 
Fourth:    A  few  staminate,  with  many  hermaphrodite,  and  a  few 
pistillate  flowers. 

Fifth :  Hermaphrodite  flowers  only. 
Sixth :  Hermaphrodite,  with  a  few  pistillate  flowers. 
Seventh :  A  few  hermaphrodite,  with  many  pistillate  flowers. 
Eighth :  Pistillate  flowers  only. 

Thus  the  plant  in  the  course  of  its  life  history  may  change  from 
a  staminate  to  a  hermaphrodite  and  then  to  a  pure  pistillate. 

At  the  Hawaii  Experiment  Station,  much  attention  has  been 
devoted  to  breeding  papayas.  Some  of  the  objects  in  view 
have  been  hermaphroditism  (in  order  to  eliminate  the  necessity 

1  Poona  Agrl.  College  Magazine,  1,  1915. 


THE  PAPAYA   AND  ITS  RELATIVES  237 

of  male  trees  to  act  as  pollinizers),  fruit  of  suitable  size  and 
shape  for  market  purposes,  uniformity  in  ripening,  good  keep- 
ing qualities,  and  good  color  and  flavor  of  flesh.  The  dioecious 
type  has  not  been  satisfactory  in  breeding,  principally  because 
the  staminates  do  not  show  the  characters  which  are  inherent 
in  them  and  which  will  appear  in  the  fruits  of  their  progeny. 
"The  hope,  therefore,"  says  J.  E.  Higgins,1  "must  lie  in  the  use 
of  a  hermaphrodite  type.  Here  it  is  possible  to  select  an  in- 
dividual of  known  qualities.  This  may  be  used  as  the  sole 
parent  stock  or  may  be  combined  with  another  parent  of 
known  qualities.  What  mixtures  there  may  be  in  the  individ- 
ual at  the  start  may  not  be  known ;  but  through  repeated  selec- 
tions and  elimination  of  undesirable  characters,  it  should  be 
possible  to  produce  a  reasonably  pure  strain,  provided,  of 
course,  that  the  stock  is  kept  pure  by  constantly  avoiding 
cross-pollination  with  plants  of  different  characters." 

Some  excellent  hermaphrodite  forms  have  already  been  pro- 
duced, and,  although  they  do  not  breed  true,  a  sufficient  number 
of  the  seedlings  are  hermaphrodites  and  produce  fruit  of  good 
quality  for  it  to  be  felt  that  a  definite  advance  has  been  made. 
Breeding  work  should  be  continued  until  a  strain  has  been  puri- 
fied to  a  point  that  it  will  breed  true  and  retain  its  fruit  charac- 
teristics as  closely  as  do  cultivated  varieties  of  eggplant,  tomato, 
and  other  vegetables. 

Yield  and  market.     . 

In  the  tropics  papayas  are  in  season  during  a  large  part  of  the 
year  and  the  yield  is  enormous,  a  single  plant  bearing  in  the 
course  of  its  life  (not  more  than  a  few  years)  a  hundred  or 
more  immense  fruits.  In  Florida  the  season  extends  from 
December  to  June,  with  a  few  fruits  ripening  at  other  times. 
Higgins  and  Holt  say :  "  The  first  ripe  fruits  may  be  expected 
(in  Hawaii)  in  about  a  year  from  the  time  when  the  plants  are 
1  Journal  of  Heredity,  May,  1916. 


238     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

set  in  the  orchard  or  garden,  and  thereafter  fruits  and  flowers  in 
all  stages  of  development  may  be  in  evidence  at  all  times  of 
the  year.  In  the  cool  season  the  fruits  are  slow  in  ripening, 
thus  causing  a  short  crop  and  high  prices  for  a  month  or  two." 

Sometimes  the  fruits  are  produced  in  such  abundance  that  it 
is  necessary  to  thin  them  in  order  to  avoid  their  remaining 
small  in  size  or  becoming  malformed  by  the  pressure  of  neigh- 
boring fruits.  Thinning  should  be  done  when  the  fruits  are 
rather  small. 

If  the  fruits  are  to  be  sent  to  market  they  should  be  picked 
as  soon  as  the  surface  begins  to  turn  yellow.  "  Certain  varieties 
become  ripe  enough  for  serving  while  showing  little  yellow 
coloring."  It  is  difficult  to  ship  the  fully  ripe  fruit,  since  it  is 
large,  heavy,  and  has  no  firm  outer  covering,  but  only  a  thin 
membranous  skin,  to  protect  it.  For  this  reason  papayas 
must  be  shipped  before  they  are  fully  ripe,  and  even  then  great 
care  is  necessary.  Shipments  have  been  made  from  Hawaii  to 
San  Francisco  in  cold  storage  with  good  results.  When  shipped 
from  southern  Florida  to  New  York  by  express,  the  percentage 
of  loss  is  usually  large,  unless  the  fruit  is  picked  while  still 
green;  and  in  the  latter  case  it  does  not  ripen  properly  after 
reaching  the  market.  It  is  advised  to  encase  the  fruits  in 
cylinders  of  corrugated  strawboard,  and  pack  them  in  single- 
tier  cases  holding  four  to  six  fruits. 

Pests  and  diseases. 

Two  pests  have  become  sufficiently  troublesome  in  south 
Florida  to  require  attention.  One,  the  papaya  fruit-fly  (Toxo- 
trypana  curvicauda  Gerst.)  threatened  at  one  time  to  become 
serious.  This  insect  occurs  in  several  parts  of  tropical  America. 
The  female  inserts  her  eggs  into  the  immature  papaya  by  means 
of  a  long  ovipositor,  and  the  larvaB  first  feed  in  the  central  seed- 
mass,  but  later  work  into  the  flesh  of  the  fruit,  frequently 
rendering  it  unfit  for  human  consumption.  The  only  means 


THE  PAPAYA   AND  ITS  RELATIVES  239 

of  control  which  have  been  suggested  are  the  destruction  of 
wild  plants  and  infested  fruits,  and  the  production  of  varieties 
having  very  thick  flesh,  so  that  the  ovipositor  will  not  reach  to 
the  seed-cavity  (the  young  larvae  are  unable  to  live  in  the 
flesh).  A  fungous  disease  known  as  papaya  leaf -spot  (Pucci- 
niopsis  caricae  Earle)  frequently  attacks  the  foliage  in  the  win- 
ter season,  forming  small  black  masses  on  the  under-surfaces 
of  the  leaves.  It  is  not  very  destructive  and  is  easily  con- 
trolled by  spraying  with  bordeaux  mixture. 

In  Hawaii  a  red  mite  (Tetranychus  sp.)  sometimes  occurs  in 
scattered  colonies  on  the  lower  surfaces  of  the  leaves  and  on 
the  fruits.  The  larvae  of  a  moth  (Cryptoblades  aliena  Swezey) 
feeds  under  a  web  on  the  floral  stems  and  beneath  the  flower- 
clusters.  Neither  of  these  pests  is  said  to  be  serious.  The 
Mediterranean  fruit-fly  (Ceratitis  capitata  Wied.)  attacks  the 
fruit;  its  presence  in  Hawaii  has  made  necessary  a  quaran- 
tine order  prohibiting  the  shipment  of  papayas  from  that 
territory  to  the  mainland  of  the  United  States.  Two  scale 
insects,  Aspidiotus  destructor  Sign,  and  Pseudoparlatoria 
ostriata  Ckll.,  are  reported  on  the  plant  in  Africa  and  Cuba 
respectively. 

Seedling  races. 

With  the  introduction  of  grafting  as  a  means  of  propagating 
choice  papayas  in  Florida,  one  named  variety,  the  Simmonds, 
was  established,  but  the  stock  has  degenerated  and  it  is  no 
longer  grown.  Grafted  plants  of  the  third  and  fourth  gene- 
ration from  the  original  seedling  developed  to  a  height  of  3  or 
4  feet  only,  produced  a  few  small  fruits,  and  were  always 
yellowish  and  sickly  in  appearance. 

There  are  marked  differences  in  the  size,  shape,  and  quality 
of  the  fruits  produced  by  different  seedlings,  and  the  papayas 
of  certain  regions  in  the  tropics  are  uniformly  superior  to  those 
of  other  regions.  In  Bahia,  Brazil,  there  are  two  distinct 


240     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

types,  one  with  small  nearly  spherical  fruits  not  over  6  inches 
in  diameter,  and  a  very  superior  type  called  mamao  da  India 
which  produces  fruits  18  inches  long,  cylindrical  in  form,  and 
.of  excellent  flavor.  The  hermaphrodite  seedlings  produce 
some  of  the  sweetest  fruits,  and  they  usually  have  thick  flesh. 
Some  papayas  are  very  sweet,  while  others  are  insipid.  The 
production  of  seedling  races  which  will  produce  fruits  of  good 
quality  and  breed  fairly  true  is  much  to  be  desired. 

THE  MOUNTAIN  PAPAYA 
(Caricacandamarcensis,  Hook,  f.) 

Since  it  comes  from  elevations  of  8000  or  9000  feet  in  the 
mountains  of  Colombia  and  Ecuador,  this  species  is  more  frost- 
resistant  than  its  near  relative  the  papaya,  and  in  this  charac- 
teristic lies  its  greatest  interest.  It  has  been  suggested  that 
hybridization  of  the  two  species  might  result  in  a  plant  which 
would  be  sufficiently  hardy  for  regions  like  southern  California 
and  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  yet  would  produce 
fruit  nearly  as  good  as  that  of  the  papaya.  Such  a  hybrid 
has  not  yet  been  produced. 

The  mountain  papaya  resembles  its  more  tropical  relative 
in  habit  and  general  appearance,  but  it  is  smaller  in  all  its 
parts;  it  grows  only  8  or  10  feet  high,  its  leaves  are  smaller 
(and  deeply  lobed),  and  its  fruits  are  only  3  or  4  inches  in  length. 
H.  F.  Macmillan  says:  "The  tree  has  been  introduced  at 
Hakgala  Gardens,  Ceylon,  in  1880,  and  is  now  commonly  grown 
in  hill  gardens  for  the  sake  of  its  fruit,  being  often  found  in 
a  semi-naturalized  state  about  up-country  bungalows."  A. 
Robertson-Proschowsky  of  Nice,  France,  writes,  in  the  Petite 
Revue  Agricole  et  Horticole :  "  It  is  a  handsome  plant,  grow- 
ing a  few  meters  high,  and  often  without  branches,  though  the 
latter  are  developed  when  the  top  is  killed  by  frost.  For 
several  years  I  have  grown  this  species  and  I  find  it  to  pro- 


THE  PAPAYA   AND  ITS  RELATIVES  241 

duce  good  fruits,  of  a  sweetish,  acidulous,  perfumed  taste. 
They  are  suitable,  as  I  have  had  occasion  to  learn  from  experi- 
ence, for  persons  with  weak  stomachs,  who  cannot  eat  other 
fruits.  They  are  particularly  good  for  dyspeptics."  Mac- 
millan  notes  that  the  fruit,  which  ripens  in  Ceylon  throughout 
the  year,  is  too  acid  to  be  used  for  dessert,  but  is  very  agree- 
able when  stewed  and  can  be  made  into  jam  and  preserves. 

The  requirements  of  the  plant  are  much  the  same  as  those 
of  the  papaya,  except  in  regard  to  climate.  It  withstands  28° 
above  zero  without  serious  injury.  The  seeds  are  sown  in  the 
same  manner  as  those  of  the  papaya. 

There  are  other  species  of  Carica  in  tropical  America,  many 
of  them  as  yet  little  known,  which  may  be  of  value  in  connec- 
tion with  papaya  breeding.  C.  quercifolia,  Benth.  and  Hook., 
with  leaves  like  those  of  the  English  oak,  is  even  hardier  than 
the  mountain  papaya,  but  its  fruit,  the  size  of  a  date,  is  worth- 
less. There  appear  to  be  in  Ecuador  several  species  closely 
resembling  C.  candamarcensis,  but  some  of  them  may  be  nothing 
more  than  varieties  of  the  latter. 

THE  PURPLE  GRANADILLA  (Plate  X) 

(Passiflora  edulis,  Sims) 

The  passifloras  are  known  in  the  Temperate  Zone  as  flower- 
ing plants,  but  the  species  commonly  grown  in  the  tropics  are 
cultivated  principally  for  their  edible  fruits.  The  most  im- 
portant one  is  the  purple  granadilla,  P.  edulis,  known  in  Aus- 
tralia, where  its  culture  is  extensive,  as  passion-fruit. 

The  plant  is  a  strong-growing,  somewhat  woody  climber, 
with  deeply  three-lobed,  serrate  leaves.  The  flower,  which  is 
white  and  purple,  is  attractive  but  not  so  handsome  as  that 
of  some  other  members  of  the  genus.  The  fruit  is  oval, 
2  to  3  inches  long,  deep  purple  in  color  when  fully  ripe.  Within 
the  brittle  outer  shell  are  numerous  small  seeds,  each  surrounded 


242     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

by  yellowish,  aromatic,  juicy  pulp,  the  flavor  of  which  is  rather 
acid. 

From  its  native  home  in  Brazil  the  purple  granadilla  has  been 
carried  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  It  attains  its  greatest  impor- 
tance as  an  economic  plant  in  Australia,  but  it  is  grown  also  in 
Ceylon,  the  Mediterranean  region,  in  the  southern  United  States, 
and  elsewhere.  The  fruit  is  used  for  flavoring  sherbets,  for 
confectionery,  for  icing  cakes,  for  "trifles,"  —  a  dish  composed 
of  sponge-cake,  fruits,  cream,  and  white  of  egg,  —  and  for 
other  table  purposes.  The  pulp  is  also  eaten  directly  from  the 
fruit,  after  adding  a  little  sugar,  or  it  may  be  used  to  prepare  a 
refreshing  drink  by  beating  it  up  in  a  glass  of  ice-water  and 
adding  a  pinch  of  bicarbonate  of  soda. 

The  term  passion-fruit,  which  is  often  applied  to  this  species, 
confuses  it  with  other  members  of  the  same  genus,  many  of 
which  are  known  by  the  same  common  name.  In  order  to 
distinguish  between  these  different  species,  it  is  well  to  adopt 
a  different  name  for  each.  P.  edulis  is  called  lilikoi  in  Hawaii. 

In  California  this  fruit  is  easily  grown,  but  it  has  not  yet 
reached  a  position  of  importance  in  the  markets;  indeed, 
it  is  rarely  seen  in  them,  —  a  condition  which  contrasts  strik- 
ingly with  its  prominence  in  Australia.  It  withstands  light 
frosts,  but  when  young  is  injured  by  temperatures  more  than 
one  or  two  degrees  below  the  freezing-point.  While  it  bears 
abundantly  in  California,  plants  grown  in  Florida  have  in  some 
instances  failed  to  produce  fruits.  The  reason  for  this  is  not 
definitely  known,  but  it  may  be  due  to  defective  pollination. 
The  pollination  of  this  and  other  edible-fruited  passifloras 
deserves  investigation,  for  it  is  probable  that  the  secret  of  many 
failures  in  their  cultivation  lies  in  this  detail.  Paul  Knuth, 
in  his  "  Handbook  of  Flower  Pollination,"  states  that  the  passi- 
floras are  protandrous  (the  anthers  shedding  their  pollen  before 
the  stigmas  are  in  condition  to  receive  it)  and  adapted  to  cross- 
pollination  by  humble-bees  and  humming-birds.  In  describ- 


THE  PAPAYA   AND  ITS  ABLATIVES  243 

ing  the  pollination  of  P.  ccerulea  he  says :  "  In  the  first  stage 
of  anthesis,  a  large  insect  (such  as  a  humble-bee)  when  sucking 
the  nectar,  receives  pollen  on  its  back  from  the  downwardly 
dehiscing  anthers.  In  the  second  stage  the  styles  have  curved 
downwards  to  such  an  extent  that  the  now  receptive  stigmas 
are  lower  than  the  empty  anthers.  It  follows  that  older  flowers 
are  fertilized  by  pollen  from  younger  ones." 

The  passifloras  are  easily  propagated  by  seeds  or  cuttings, 
the  latter  method  being  preferable  in  most  cases.  Seeds 
should  be  removed  from  the  fruit,  dried  in  a  shady  place,  and 
planted  in  flats  of  light  soil.  They  do  not  germinate  quickly, 
but  the  young  plants  are  easily  raised,  and  may  be  set  out  in 
the  open  ground  when  six  months  to  a  year  old.  Cuttings 
should  be  taken  from  fairly  well-matured  shoots,  and  should 
be  about  6  inches  in  length.  They  are  easily  rooted  in  sand, 
no  bottom-heat  being  required.  Cuttings  of  the  purple 
granadilla  will  often  fruit  in  pots  at  the  age  of  two  years. 

Directions  for  the  commercial  cultivation  of  this  fruit,  based 
on  American  experience,  cannot  be  given,  since  no  commercial 
plantings,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  small  ones  on  an  experi- 
mental scale,  have  yet  been  made  in  this  country.  The  fol- 
lowing extracts  are  taken  from  an  article  by  W.  J.  Allen  in  the 
Agricultural  Gazette  of  New  South  Wales  for  November  2, 1912  : 

"Although  this  fruit  is  not  grown  so  extensively  as  it  should  be 
throughout  the  many  districts  on  the  coast  where  it  will  do  well,  it 
nevertheless  plays  quite  an  important  part  in  some  of  the  young 
citrus  orchards  in  the  County  of  Cumberland,  on  the  Penang  Moun- 
tain, and  around  the  Gosford  district,  where  it  is  frequently  planted 
among  the  trees.  As  it  begins  to  bear  very  early,  growers  are  enabled 
to  make  considerably  more  from  this  crop  than  pays  for  the  working 
of  the  orchard  until  the  young  trees  begin  to  produce  crops  of  fruit, 
which  they  invariably  do  after  the  third  or  fourth  year. 

"Generally  speaking,  the  vines  are  most  productive  before  having 
attained  to  four  or  five  years  of  age.  After  that  period  they  begin  to 
lose  vigor  and  gradually  die  out,  or  cease  to  be  very  profitable,  and  are, 
in  consequence  removed. 


244     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

"The  passion- vine  is  found  to  thrive  well  on  many  classes  of  soil, 
—  some  so  poor  that  one  is  led  to  wonder  how  anything  could  profit- 
ably be  grown  on  it.  On  the  light  sandstone  and  poorer  coastal  coun- 
try there  is  no  other  fruit  which  will  give  the  same  return  as  this,  and 
with  proper  working  and  heavy  manuring,  it  is  wonderful  the  amount 
of  fruit  that  can  be  taken  from  an  acre  of  such  vines.  The  area  planted 
is  comparatively  small,  and,  in  consequence,  the  fruit  usually  commands 
very  high  prices.  As  an  addition  to  a  fruit  salad  there  is  no  flavor  that 
can  surpass  it,  and  when  eaten  with  cream  it  rivals  the  most  delicious 
of  strawberries.  If  this  fruit  were  known  in  Great  Britain  and  America, 
I  venture  to  say  that  there  would  be  an  unlimited  demand  for  it,  if 
once  we  were  successful  in  landing  it  in  those  countries  in  large  quan- 
tities. 

"In  selecting  a  site  for  the  planting  of  a  vineyard,  one  of  the  im- 
portant points  to  keep  in  view  is  to  avoid  a  district  or  situation  where 
frosts  are  at  all  severe  or  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  winter.  There 
is  one  thing  which  this  vine  will  not  stand,  and  that  is  severe  frosts ; 
and  the  Easter,  winter,  and  spring  crops  are  those  which  are  in  most 
demand.  During  the  summer  time  there  is  a  superabundance  of  other 
fruits,  and  hence  the  consumption  of  the  passion-fruit  is  not  so  great ; 
from  Easter  until  Christmas  time  there  is  a  splendid  market  for  all 
well  grown  fruit.  It  is  during  part  of  this  time  that  we  have  our  cold- 
est weather,  and  a  severe  frost  or  two  would  destroy  the  whole  crop, 
and  in  all  probability  kill  the  vine  back  to  the  root. 

"The  chief  feature  about  the  passion- vine,  however,  is  its  habit  of 
producing  two  crops  per  annum.  The  summer  crop  comes  in  about 
February  or  March,  and  prices  are  necessarily  low.  The  winter  crop 
is  ready  for  pulling  when  other  fruits  are  not  so  plentiful  on  the  market. 
The  practice  of  the  growers,  has,  therefore,  been  to  secure  a  heavy 
winter  crop  by  pruning  away  the  summer  crop  when  about  hah7  grown ; 
or  generally  speaking,  about  the  month  of  November.  This  stimu- 
lates the  vines  to  throw  out  fresh  fruiting  laterals  for  the  winter. 

"The  next  point  of  importance  is  to  put  the  land  in  thorough 
order  before  planting,  and  in  places  where  it  is  very  sour  and  deficient 
in  lime,  which  it  mostly  is  on  our  coastal  country  where  the  passion- 
fruit  is  grown,  it  would  be  advantageous  to  give  the  land  at  least  half 
a  ton  of  good  lime  to  the  acre. 

"The  vines  should  be  planted  out  about  August  or  September, 
when  the  ground  is  in  good  condition. 

"The  seed  is  sown  in  February.  The  rows  should  be  30  inches  to 
three  feet  apart,  and  the  seed  every  inch  or  so  in  the  row,  afterwards 
thinning  out  to  three  inches  apart  to  make  good  stocky  plants. 

"In  erecting  the  trellis,  the  posts  should  be  six  feet  and  a  half  long, 
firmly  set  in  the  ground  to  a  depth  of  18  inches,  and  placed  at  distances 
of  about  24  feet  apart,  or  at  farthest  32  feet  in  the  row.  On  the  tops 


THE  PAPAYA   AND  ITS  RELATIVES  245 

of  these  posts  are  tightly  stretched,  at  a  distance  of  six  inches  apart, 
two  strong  No.  8  galvanized  iron  wires.  The  rows  should  run  north 
and  south,  so  that  they  get  the  sunlight  on  both  sides.  The  rows  are 
placed  in  the  center  of  the  tree-rows,  or  when  alone,  10  feet  apart,  with 
the  vines  12  feet  in  the  row,  thus  requiring  about  362  plants  to  the 
acre. 

"The  young  vine  is  trained  with  a  single  stem  up  the  stakes  until 
it  reaches  the  wires,  when  it  is  allowed  to  throw  out  from  two  to  four 
leaders,  which  are  trained  to  run  either  way  on  the  wires.  As  the  vine 
puts  forth  further  growth,  the  main  leaders  and  laterals  are  trained 
along  the  wires. 

"Without  judicious  manuring  there  are  very  few  districts  where 
the  growing  of  this  fruit  would  prove  highly  satisfactory,  while,  on 
the  other  hand,  those  growers  who  are  giving  the  most  attention  to 
this  important  adjunct  are  the  ones  who  are  making  the  greatest 
profits  out  of  the  industry.  It  has  become  a  recognized  fact  that 
liberal  dressings  of  manure  must  be  used  from  the  time  of  planting 
until  the  plants  cease  to  be  productive. 

"On  making  inquiry  among  the  different  growers,  I  found  that 
scarcely  any  two  of  them  were  using  the  same  mixture.  Some,  on  the 
lighter  soils,  were  using  considerable  quantities  of  blood  and  bone  with 
a  little  potash ;  others  were  using  bone,  superphosphate,  and  potash ; 
while  others  were  using  a  mixture  of  nitrate  of  soda,  dried  blood,  and 
superphosphate  and  sulphate  of  potash,  etc.,  etc. ;  and  judging  from 
the  appearance  of  the  different  vines,  all  with  very  gratifying  results. 

"When  the  fruit  begins  to  ripen  it  should  be  picked  at  least  twice  a 
week.  It  will  keep  well  in  a  cool  dry  place,  but  I  would  recommend 
marketing  every  week. 

"All  badly  formed  and  inferior  fruit  is  discarded,  and  the  better 
fruit  is  mostly  packed  in  layers,  so  that  when  opened  at  the  markets 
it  presents  a  good  appearance.  In  grading,  color  as  well  as  size  is 
taken  into  consideration,  any  badly  colored  fruits  being  sorted  out 
and  packed  separately." 


THE  SWEET  GRANADILLA  (Fig.  30) 
(Passiflora  ligularis,  A.  Juss.) 

Next  in  importance  to  the  purple  granadilla  or  passion- 
fruit  comes  the  sweet  granadilla,  a  species  extensively  used  by 
the  inhabitants  of  the  mountainous  parts  of  Mexico  and  Cen- 
tral America.  In  flavor  it  is  perhaps  the  best  of  the  genus,  and 
it  certainly  merits  a  wider  distribution  than  it  enjoys  at  present. 


246     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 


Henry  Pittier  speaks  of  this  fruit  as  "neither  a  food  nor  a 
beverage."  Its  white  pulp  is  almost  liquid,  acidulous,  and 
perfumed  in  taste.  Among  the  Indians  of  Central  America 
it  is  a  favorite,  and  figures  prominently  in  many  of  the  markets. 
The  plant  is  a  vigorous  climber,  scrambling  over  build- 
ings and  trees  of  considerable  size.  The  leaves  are  cordate  and 
acuminate,  and  commonly  about  6  inches  long.  The  flowers 
are  solitary,  with  the  petals  and  sepals  greenish,  and  the  corona 
white  with  zones  of  red-purple.  The 
fruit  is  somewhat  larger  than  that  of 
P.  edulis,  oval  or  slightly  elliptic  in 
form,  and  orange  to  orange-brown, 
sometimes  purplish,  in  color.  The  shell 
is  strong,  so  that  the  fruit  can  be  trans- 
ported long  distances  without  injury. 
The  seeds  are  numerous  and  each  sur- 
rounded by  translucent  whitish  pulp. 
The  Indians  eat  the  fruit  out  of  hand. 
The  species  is  a  native  of  tropical 
America  and  does  not  seem  to  be  known 
in  other  regions.  Recently  it  has  been 
introduced  into  California  and  Florida 
by  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  but  so  far  as  is  known,  it 
has  not  yet  fruited  in  either  state.  Since  it  grows  in  Central 
America  at  elevations  of  6000  to  7000  feet,  it  should  be  suffi- 
ciently cold-resistant  to  withstand  light  frosts,  although  it  is 
doubtful  whether  it  will  survive  temperatures  more  than  two 
or  three  degrees  below  freezing-point. 

Its  requirements  in  regard  to  soil  and  cultural  attention 
are  probably  about  the  same  as  those  of  P.  edulis.  It  does 
not  fruit  quite  so  abundantly  as  the  latter,  nor  has  it  been 
observed  to  produce  more  than  one  crop  a  year  in  Central 
America.  Propagation  is  usually  by  seed. 


FIG.  30.  The  sweet 
granadilla  (Passiflora  lig- 
ularis),  one  of  the  best- 
flavored  fruits  of  its  genus. 

(xi) 


THE  PAPAYA   AND  ITS  RELATIVES 


247 


THE  GIANT  GRANADILLA  (Fig.  31) 
(Passiflora  quadrangularis,  L.) 

While  this  is  the  largest-fruited  species  of  the  genus,  and 
one  of  the  most  widely  distributed,  it  is  not  the  best  in  quality. 
From  its  native  home  in  tropical  America  it  has  been  carried 
to  the  eastern  tropics,  where  it  is  now  grown  in  many  places. 
It  is  common  in  the  West  Indies, 
but  nowhere  is  it  cultivated  on  a 
commercial  scale. 

The  plant  is  somewhat  coarse 
and  is  a  strong  climber.  The 
stems  are  four-angled,  as  indi- 
cated by  the  specific  name,  and 
the  leaves  are  ovate  or  round- 
ovate,  cordate  at  the  base  and 
mucronate  at  the  apex,  entire, 
and  6  or  8  inches  long.  The 
flowers,  which  are  about  3  inches 
in  diameter,  are  white  and  pur- 
ple in  color.  The  fruits  are  ob- 
long, up  to  10  inches  in  length. 
H.  F.  Macmillan  says:  "Its 
large,  oblong,  greenish-yellow 
fruit  is  not  unlike  a  short  and 
thick  vegetable-marrow,  and  con- 
tains in  its  hollow  center  a  mass  of  purple,  sweet-acid  pulp 
mixed  with  flat  seeds."  A  horticultural  form  exists  which  has 
leaves  variegated  with  yellow. 

This  species  is  more  tropical  in  its  requirements  than  P. 
ligularis  and  P.  edidis.  It  will  grow  in  southern  Florida, 
but  is  not  successful  in  California.  A.  Robertson-Proschowsky 
reports,  however,  that  it  has  fruited  on  the  French  Riviera 


FIG.  31.     The  giant  granadilla 
(Passiflora  quadrangularis) .    (X  \ 


248     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

at  Golfe-Juan  and  perhaps  elsewhere,  and  in  his  own  garden 
at  Nice  was  only  killed  after  surviving  several  winters. 

The  fruit  is  known  in  French  as  barbadine,  in  Portuguese  as 
maracujd  melao,  and  in  Spanish  as  granadilla  or  granadilla 
real.  The  name  granadilla  is  applied,  in  different  parts  of  the 
tropics,  to  several  species  of  Passiflora,  and  in  order  to  dis- 
tinguish them  it  is  necessary  to  append  a  qualifying  word.  It 
is  derived  from  granada,  and  means  "small  pomegranate." 

Macmillan  recommends  that  the  shoots  be  well  cut  back 
after  the  fruiting  season  is  past.  It  is  commonly  believed 
necessary  to  resort  to  hand-pollination  to  insure  the  produc- 
tion of  fruit,  but  this  is  not  always  the  case.  The  protandrous 
character  of  the  passifloras,  and  the  necessity  of  cross-pollina- 
tion, are  mentioned  in  the  discussion  of  the  purple  granadilla ; 
that  it  is  sometimes  possible,  however,  for  fruits  to  be  produced 
by  self-fertilization,  has  been  shown  by  experience.  Paul 
Knuth,  after  describing  the  character  of  the  passiflora  flower, 
says :  "  Autogamy  (self-pollination)  would  seem  to  be  ex- 
cluded under  such  circumstances,  yet  it  is  possible  that  the 
stigmas  and  the  anthers  may  be  brought  into  contact  when  the 
flower  closes  at  the  end  of  the  single  day's  anthesis.  This  is 
the  more  probable  as  Warnstorf  saw  a  fully  formed  fruit  in  a 
greenhouse.  Here,  then,  is  a  case  in  which  an  obviously 
chasmogamous  flower  (one  in  which  the  perianth  opens)  is 
only  self-pollinated  after  it  has  closed."  If  P.  quadrangularis 
is  self -sterile,  however,  it  would  do  no  good  to  have  the  flowers 
self-pollinated.  If  insects  are  lacking  to  do  the  work,  cross- 
pollination  must  be  effected  by  hand. 

Propagation  is  by  seed  or  by  cuttings,  which  should  be  10  to 
12  inches  long  and  from  well-matured  stems,  and  should  be 
inserted  in  sand. 

Several  other  species  of  Passiflora  are  cultivated  in  the  tropics 
for  their  fruit.  P.  laurifolia,  known  as  yellow  granadilla,  water- 
lemon,  Jamaica  honeysuckle,  sweet-cup,  bell-apple,  and  pomme 


THE  PAPAYA   AND  ITS  RELATIVES  249 

d'or,  is  cultivated  in  the  West  Indies,  and  to  a  limited  extent 
in  other  regions.  H.  F.  Macmillan  states  that  it  is  not  fruit- 
ful in  the  eastern  tropics.  P.  mcdiformis,  L.  is  grown  in  the 
West  Indies,  and  in  the  mountains  of  Colombia,  where  it  is 
called  curuba  or  kuruba. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE  LOQUAT  AND  ITS  RELATIVES 

HEREIN  are  grouped  the  few  fruits  of  the  Rose  family  that 
are  cultivated  to  any  extent  in  the  tropics  and  sub  tropics. 
In  temperate  regions,  this  family  supplies  the  leading  tree- 
fruits,  as  apple,  pear,  quince,  stone-fruits,  and  also  such  small- 
fruits  as  raspberry,  dewberry,  blackberry,  and  strawberry. 

THE  LOQUAT  (Plate  XII) 
(Eriobotrya  japonica,  Lindl.) 

The  production  of  loquats  in  Japan  is  estimated  at  twenty 
million  pounds  annually.  From  one  small  village  in  the  Che- 
kiang  Province  of  China,  twenty  thousand  dollars'  worth  have 
been  shipped  in  a  single  year.  In  the  Occident  this  excellent 
fruit  has  not  attained  the  commercial  prominence  which  it 
deserves,  nor  has  it  been  improved  through  cultivation  and 
selection  to  any  such  extent  as  have  many  other  Asiatic  fruits 
now  grown  in  Europe  and  America. 

To  northern  residents  and  travelers  in  tropical  and  sub- 
tropical countries,  the  loquat  should  possess  an  especial  attrac- 
tion, inasmuch  as  it  recalls  in  flavor  and  character  the  fruits 
of  the  North.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  a  close  relative  of  the 
apple  and  the  pear,  while  its  flavor  distinctly  suggests  the 
cherry.  Those  whose  palates  have  been  educated  to  demand  the 
subacid  sprightly  flavored  fruits  of  the  Temperate  Zone  often 
criticize  tropical  fruits  as  being  too  sweet  and  rich.  The  loquat 
is  not  open  to  this  objection,  and  it  can  be  grown  throughout 

250 


THE  LOQUAT  AND  ITS   RELATIVES  251 

the  tropics  wherever  there  are  elevations  of  a  few  thousand 
feet. 

To  reach  its  greatest  perfection,  the  loquat  requires  particular 
climatic  conditions.  Quite  satisfactory  results  are  obtained 
with  it,  however,  in  situations  where  the  plant  cannot  realize 
its  best  possibilities.  The  tree  is  simple  of  culture,  and  has 
become  widely  distributed  throughout  the  tropics  and  sub- 
tropics. 

Not  until  rather  recently  has  it  been  planted  in  regions  where 
systematic  attention  is  given  to  the  improvement  of  fruits; 
hence  its  development  to  meet  the  ideals  of  European  and 
American  pomologists,  while  accomplished  in  part,  is  still  far 
from  complete.  The  progress  made  during  the  last  twenty 
years  is  highly  encouraging,  and  several  varieties  now  available 
are  sufficiently  good  to  merit  extensive  cultivation. 

Because  of  its  ornamental  appearance  alone,  the  loquat  is 
often  planted  in  parks  and  gardens.  It  is  a  small  tree,  rarely 
more  than  30  feet  high  and  commonly  not  exceeding  20  or  25 
feet.  It  has  a  short  trunk,  usually  branching  two  or  three  feet 
from  the  ground  to  form  a  crown  round  or  oval  in  form,  and 
normally  compact  and  dense.  The  leaves,  which  are  somewhat 
crowded  towards  the  ends  of  the  stout  woolly  branchlets,  are 
elliptic-lanceolate  to  obovate-lanceolate  in  outline,  6  to  10 
inches  long,  remotely  toothed,  deep  green  in  color,  and  woolly 
below.  The  fragrant  white  flowers  are  ^  inch  broad  and  are 
borne  in  terminal  woolly  panicles  4  to  8  inches  long.  The  calyx 
is  composed  of  five  small,  imbricate,  acute  teeth;  the  corolla 
has  five  oblong-ovate  clawed  petals,  white  in  color  and  delicate 
in  texture.  The  stamens  are  twenty,  the  pistils  five,  joined 
toward  the  base.  The  fruits,  which  are  borne  in  loose  clusters, 
are  commonly  round,  oval,  or  pyriform,  1  to  3  inches  in  length, 
pale  yellow  to  orange  in  color,  and  somewhat  downy  on  the 
surface.  The  skin  is  about  as  thick  as  that  of  a  peach,  but 
slightly  tougher;  the  flesh  firm  and  meaty  in  some  varieties, 


252     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

melting  in  others,  ranging  from  almost  white  to  deep  orange  in 
color,  juicy,  and  of  a  sprightly,  subacid  flavor.  The  seeds  may 
,  be  as  many  as  ten,  since  there  are  five  cells  in  the  ovary  and  two 
ovules  in  each  cell ;  but  usually  several  of  the  ovules  are  aborted, 
and  not  more  than  three  to  five  seeds  develop.  They  are  ovate 
in  form,  flattened  on  the  sides,  light  brown  in  color,  and  about 
f  of  an  inch  long.  Sometimes  fruits  with  only  one  seed  are  found, 
and  varieties  constantly  one-seeded  have  been  reported. 

Although  formerly  considered  indigenous  to  Japan  and  China, 
it  is  now  believed  that  the  loquat  was  originally  limited  to  the 
latter  country.  The  late  Frank  N.  Meyer  considered  the  species 
to  be  "in  all  probability  indigenous  to  the  hills  of  the  mild- 
wintered,  moist  regions  of  central-eastern  China."  He  found  it 
in  a  semi-wild  state  near  Tangsi,  in  Chekiang  Province,  a  region 
in  which  loquats  are  extensively  cultivated  for  market.  The 
Chinese  graft  superior  varieties  on  seedling  stocks,  but  according 
to  Meyer 1  they  are  not  very  skillful  in  this  work.  Their  finest 
variety  is  said  to  be  the  pai  bibaw  or  white  loquat. 

The  loquat  has  been  cultivated  in  Japan  since  antiquity,  and 
is  at  present  one  of  the  important  fruits  of  that  country.  It  is 
grown  in  the  same  regions  as  the  citrus  fruits,  or  even  farther 
north  than  the  latter.  T.  Ikeda 2  points  out  that  localities 
noted  for  unusually  fine  loquats  always  lie  close  to  the  sea. 
Numerous  varieties  have  originated  in  Japan,  the  best  of  which 
have  been  introduced  into  the  United  States  and  a  few  other 
countries.  While  there  are  commercial  orchards  in  many 
places,  the  total  number  of  trees  growing  in  Japan  is  said  to  be 
less  than  one  million;  hence  it  would  seem  that  the  industry 
there  should  be  capable  of  extension,  for  the  fruit  is  popular 
and  the  territory  adapted  to  its  production  is  large. 

In  northern  India  the  loquat  is  a  fruit-tree  of  considerable 
importance.  A.  C.  Hartless,  superintendent  of  the  Government 

1  Bull.  204,  Bur.  Plant  Industry. 

2  Fruit  Culture  in  Japan. 


THE  LOQUAT  AND  ITS  RELATIVES  253 

Botanical  Gardens  at  Saharanpur,  observes  that  certain 
localities  have  been  much  more  favorable  than  others,  and  that 
the  best  results  are  obtained  where  the  soil  is  sandy  loam  and 
where  abundant  water  is  supplied:  and  reports  that  "In  the 
plains  the  loquat  is  in  season  in  April,  but  in  the  colder  climate 
of  the  hills  it  fruits  in  the  autumn."  Most  of  the  trees  in 
India  are  seedlings,  but  several  grafted  varieties  have  been 
distributed  from  Saharanpur. 

Throughout  a  large  part  of  the  Mediterranean  region  the 
loquat  is  highly  successful ;  it  is  said,  in  fact,  to  have  become 
naturalized  in  several  places.  In  southern  France  it  is  a  common 
tree,  but  there  are  no  large  commercial  plantations.  In  Italy 
and  Sicily  it  is  abundant.  David  Fairchild  states  it  to  be  one  of 
the  principal  fruits  of  the  island  of  Malta,  but  the  trees  are 
seedlings  and  practically  none  of  them  worth  propagating.  L. 
Trabut  says  of  the  loquat  in  Algeria:  "The  Horticultural 
Society,  the  Botanical  Service,  and  a  certain  number  of  amateurs 
have  collaborated  in  producing  superior  varieties  which  are 
now  propagated  by  grafting.  The  Botanical  Service  has 
introduced  the  best  varieties  obtainable  in  Japan,  and  public 
opinion  is  undergoing  a  change  regarding  this  fruit.  For- 
merly it  was  not  esteemed."  The  tree  is  common  in  the  gardens 
of  Algiers,  and  during  early  spring  the  fruit  is  abundant  in 
the  markets. 

Regarding  its  behavior  in  England,  the  Gardener's  Chronicle 
(May  3,  1913),  referring  to  it  under  an  alternative  name,  says : 
"The  Japanese  Medlar  is  an  old  garden  favorite,  grown  in  this 
country  for  its  handsome  evergreen  foliage,  and  in  warmer 
regions  for  the  sake  of  its  edible  fruits.  Messrs.  Sander  have 
obtained  from  some  source  a  variegated  sport  of  it,  which  is 
likely  to  become  a  popular  garden  plant,  the  variegation  being 
particularly  pleasing,  some  of  the  leaves  being  more  milk- 
white  than  green.  It  is  not  generally  known  that  the  Japanese 
Medlar  is  quite  happy  when  grown  under  the  shelter  of  a  wall 


254     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

in  the  neighborhood  of  London;  in  other  words,  it  is  much 
hardier  than  is  supposed." 

According  to  Paul  Hubert,  the  loquat  is  grown  in  Madagascar 
and  in  some  islands  of  French  Oceania.  It  is  also  cultivated  in 
Indo-China.  In  Hawaii  it  is  fairly  common  as  a  garden  tree. 
In  Australia  its  cultivation  is  limited  to  Queensland,  but  Albert 
H.  Benson  says  that  it  can  be  grown  in  the  more  southerly 
coast  districts,  in  the  foothills  of  the  Coast  Range,  and  on  the 
coast  tablelands.  It  is  not  extensively  cultivated  in  any  of  these 
regions.  Grafted  varieties  are  offered  by  nurserymen  in 
Brisbane. 

The  loquat  has  become  widely  distributed  throughout 
America,  where  its  cultivation  extends  from  California  and 
Florida  to  Chile  and  Argentina.  In  Mexico,  Central  America, 
and  northern  South  America,  it  is  grown  usually  in  mountain 
valleys  and  on  plateaux  at  elevations  of  3000  to  7000  feet.  In 
those  situations  it  succeeds  well,  and  merits  more  attention 
than  is  now  given  it,  especially  the  introduction  of  superior 
varieties,  propagated  by  grafting. 

California  is  probably  the  most  favorable  region  for  loquat 
culture  in  the  United  States.  There  are  many  areas  in  the 
southern  end  of  the  state  which  are  admirably  adapted  to  the 
production  of  choice  fruit,  and  the  commercial  development  of 
loquat  culture  in  these  localities  is  slowly  but  steadily  progress- 
ing. Already  there  are  several  orchards  ten  to  twenty  acres 
in  size,  and  many  budded  trees  of  superior  varieties  have  been 
planted  in  dooryards  and  home  gardens. 

Throughout  the  Gulf  states  the  tree  grows  well,  but  in  many 
regions  frosts  interfere  with  the  production  of  fruit.  Several 
small  orchards  have  been  started  in  Florida,  and  while  these 
have  not  been  altogether  successful  in  most  instances,  there  are 
certain  districts  in  the  southern  part  of  the  state  which  seem 
well  adapted  to  its  culture.  W.  J.  Krome  has  had  signally  good 
results  with  this  fruit  at  Homestead.  At  Miami  it  has  not  done 


THE  LOQUAT  AND  ITS  RELATIVES  255 

so  well,  probably  because  the  soil  is  too  light  for  it  and  not 
sufficiently  moist. 

While  the  name  loquat  is  universally  recognized  among 
English-speaking  peoples  as  the  correct  one  for  this  fruit,  it  is 
sometimes  called  Japanese  medlar  and  Japan-plum.  The  Span- 
ish name  is  nispero  del  Japon,  the  Italian  nespola  giapponese; 
both  of  these  mean  Japanese  medlar,  and  have  been  applied 
because  of  the  resemblance  of  this  fruit  to  the  European  medlar, 
Mespilus  germanica.  The  French  use  this  same  term,  as  neflier 
du  Japon;  they  also  use  the  name  bibace.  Yule  and  Burnell 
say  of  the  word  loquat :  "  The  name  is  that  used  in  S.  China,  lu- 
kiih,  pronounced  at  Canton  lukwat,  and  meaning  '  rush  orange.' 
Elsewhere  in  China  it  is  called  pi-pa."  This  later  suggests 
biwa,  which  is  the  common  name  in  Japan. 

The  botanical  name  of  the  loquat  is  Eriobotrya  japonica, 
Lindl.,  of  which  Photinia  japonica,  Gray,  is  a  synonym.  The 
latter  name  is  retained  by  those  who  prefer  not  to  separate 
the  two  genera,  for  the  generic  name  Photinia  is  older  than 
Eriobotrya. 

Although  most  commonly  eaten  as  a  fresh  fruit,  the  loquat 
can  be  utilized  in  several  ways.  For  culinary  purposes  it  is 
nearly  as  useful  as  its  temperate-zone  relative  the  apple;  it 
may  be  stewed  and  served  as  a  sauce,  or  it  may  be  made  into 
excellent  jelly.  Loquat  pie,  if  made  from  fruit  which  is  not 
fully  ripe,  can  scarcely  be  distinguished  from  the  renowned 
article  made  from  cherries.  The  seeds  are  usually  removed 
from  the  fruit  before  it  is  cooked,  as  otherwise  they  impart  a 
bitter  flavor  to  it. 

The  following  analyses  of  two  California  varieties,  made  by 
M.  E.  Jaffa,  have  been  published  by  I.  J.  Condit  in  his  bulletin 
"The  Loquat"  l  unquestionably  the  most  thorough  treatise  on 
this  fruit  which  has  appeared  up  to  the  present : 

1  Bull.  250,  Calif.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta. 


256     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 


TABLE  V.   COMPOSITION  OF  THE  LOQUAT 


VAEIETY 

WATER 

PROTEIN 

FAT 

SCG 

A.R 

FIBER 

ASH 

Dextrose 

Sucrose 

Thales  

% 

89.0 

% 

0.35 

% 

0.06 

% 

8.95 

% 

0.94 

% 

0.30 

% 

0.29 

Champagne    .     .     . 

84.0 

0.32 

0.03 

11.96 

0.83 

0.37 

0.36 

Cultivation. 

The  climatic  requirements  of  the  loquat,  except  as  an  orna- 
mental plant,  are  distinctly  subtropical.  It  is  not  successful 
in  the  hot  tropical  lowlands,  nor  can  it  be  grown  for  fruiting 
purposes  in  regions  subject  to  more  than  a  few  degrees  of 
frost.  Cool  weather  during  part  of  the  year  and  a  rainfall  of 
15  to  50  inches  (with  artificial  irrigation  where  the  dry  season  is 
severe)  suit  it  best.  These  conditions  are  found  in  southern 
Japan,  in  parts  of  southern  California,  along  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean,  and  in  several  other  regions.  It  has  been  noted 
in  Japan  that  the  best  loquat  situations  always  lie  close  to  the 
sea;  and  in  California  much  finer  fruit  has  been  produced 
near  the  coast  than  in  the  foothill  tracts  twenty  to  thirty  miles 
inland.  Thus  it  seems  that  the  mild  climate  of  the  seacoast 
is  peculiarly  favorable  to  the  development  of  the  fruit. 

While  mature  trees  have  withstood  temperatures  as  low  as 
10°  above  zero  without  serious  injury,  the  flowers  and  young 
fruits  may  be  killed  by  temperatures  only  a  few  degrees  below 
freezing ;  hence  loquats  cannot  be  produced  successfully  where 
heavy  frosts  may  occur  at  the  time  of  flowering.  Condit  notes  : 
"Frost  coming  when  the  fruit  is  less  than  half  grown  may 
result  in  killing  the  seeds  only,  while  the  flesh  continues  to 
develop,  so  that  seedless  fruits  mature.  On  the  other  hand, 
frost  may  have  somewhat  the  same  effect  as  sunburn, 


THE  LOQUAT  AND  ITS  RELATIVES  257 

injuring  the  tissues  and  causing  them  to  shrink  or  to  develop 
irregularly." 

When  grown  in  regions  where  the  weather  during  the  ripening 
season  is  extremely  hot  and  dry,  the  fruit  is  subject  to  sun- 
scald  or  sunburn.  The  exposed  surface  withers  and  turns 
brown,  and  the  product  is  rendered  unfit  for  market.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  weather  is  cool  and  foggy  during  the  ripening 
season,  the  fruit  lacks  sweetness  and  flavor. 

Sandy  loam  is  considered  the  ideal  loquat  soil,  and  it  should 
be  of  good  depth.  Several  other  types  of  soil  have  proved 
satisfactory;  thus,  in  southern  California  good  orchards  have 
been  produced  on  heavy  clay  of  the  adobe  type,  and  in  Florida 
the  shallow  rocky  soils  of  the  Homestead  region  on  the  lower 
east  coast  have  given  excellent  results.  Deep  sandy  soils, 
when  of  little  fertility,  are  not  suitable.  Frank  N.  Meyer 
points  out  that  the  best  loquat  orchards  in  China  are  situated 
on  low,  rich,  moist  land. 

In  California  orchards,  loquat  trees  are  planted  12  to  24 
feet  apart.  When  planted  on  the  square  system,  they  should 
not  be  nearer  than  20  feet.  Close  planting  has  been  practiced 
in  Orange  County,  where  the  rows  are  set  24  feet  apart 
and  the  trees  12  feet  apart  in  the  row.  This  is  believed  to 
result  in  greater  regularity  and  uniformity  of  production 
than  wider  planting.  March  and  April  are  good  months  for 
planting  in  California;  late  September  and  October  are  also 
suitable.  In  southern  Florida  the  best  time  is  probably  in  the 
autumn. 

The  amount  of  tillage  given  the  orchard  varies  in  different 
regions.  Condit  says:  "Clean  culture  may  be  practiced 
throughout  the  season,  but  the  growth  either  of  a  winter  or  a 
summer  leguminous  cover-crop  is  much  more  advisable." 
For  a  winter  cover-crop,  the  natural  vegetation  which  springs 
up  in  California  with  the  arrival  of  the  rains  may  be  allowed 
to  grow  until  it  reaches  its  maximum  development,  when  it 


258     MANUAL  OP  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

should  be  cut  with  a  mowing-machine  and  plowed  under  after 
the  fruit  is  harvested.  Following  this  the  ground  should  be 
cultivated  and  a  summer  cover-crop  such  as  buckwheat  or  the 
whip-poor-will  cowpea  should  be  planted.  "Winter  cover- 
crops  may  be  planted  as  early  as  September,  in  which  case  they 
may  have  made  sufficient  growth  to  be  turned  under  before  the 
harvest  begins.  This  is  not  always  possible,  especially  if  an 
early  variety  of  loquat  is  grown ;  in  fact,  it  is  a  question  whether 
it  is  advisable  to  plow  or  work  the  ground  deeply  or  at  all  during 
the  setting  and  maturing  of  the  fruit."  In  Florida  and  other 
regions  different  methods  of  cultivation  may  be  required,  but 
the  liberal  use  of  green  cover-crops  seems  universally  desirable. 
In  addition  to  cover-crops,  stable  manure  is  often  used  to 
enrich  the  land  in  California  orchards.  Bearing  loquat  trees 
exhaust  the  fertility  of  the  soil  rapidly  and  it  is  necessary  to 
replenish  the  supply  of  plant-food  annually  if  fruit  of  large 
size  is  to  be  expected.  Condit  observes:  *When  the  average 
California  soil  begins  to  fail  from  heavy  production,  nitrogen 
is  likely  to  be  the  first  crop  limiter ;  after  nitrogen,  phosphoric 
acid,  and  after  phosphoric  acid,  potash."  Particular  care 
should  be  taken,  therefore,  to  see  that  the  supply  of  nitrogen 
is  sufficient  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  tree.  C.  P.  Taft,  of 
Orange,  California,  has  found  the  green  cover-crops  of  great 
value  in  this  connection.  E.  Pillans,  Government  Horti- 
culturist at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  says  that  a  yearly  appli- 
cation of  well-rotted  stable  manure  is  amply  repaid  by  larger 
crops  and  increased  size  of  fruit.  The  loquat  groves  of  Japan 
are  said  to  be  fertilized  with  litter,  weeds  from  the  roadsides, 
and,  recently,  with  commercial  fertilizers.  Condit  advises  the 
application  of  15  cubic  feet  of  stable  manure  biennially  to  each 
bearing  tree. 

It  is  ordinarily  considered  that  the  amount  of  water  required 
by  loquat  trees  corresponds  closely  to  that  needed  by  citrus 
fruits.  Probably  it  would  be  more  accurate  to  say  that  the 


THE  LOQUAT  AND   ITS   RELATIVES  259 

loquat  is  more  drought-resistant  than  any  of  the  citrus  fruits, 
but  that  the  best  results  are  obtained  when  the  orchard  is 
irrigated  as  liberally  as  the  citrus  orchard.  In  California  there 
is  usually  abundant  rainfall  at  the  time  the  fruits  are  approach- 
ing maturity ;  in  other  regions,  or  in  California  if  the  season  is 
abnormally  dry,  it  may  be  desirable  to  supply  water  at  this 
time,  since  the  fruits  only  develop  to  large  size  when  there  is 
abundant  moisture  in  the  soil.  In  southern  France  the  tree  is 
said  not  to  do  well  en  soils  which  are  over-moist  in  winter. 

The  young  tree  should  be  headed  24  to  30  inches  above  the 
ground,  and  three  to  five  main  branches  forced  to  develop. 
The  loquat  is  a  compact  grower,  and  the  mature  tree  requires 
much  less  pruning  than  most  of  the  temperate-zone  fruits. 
It  has  been  found  by  C.  P.  Taft,  however,  that  a  certain  number 
of  branches  must  be  cut  out  from  time  to  time,  in  order  to  limit 
the  amount  of  fruiting  wood  and  to  admit  light  to  the  center  of 
the  tree.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  tendency  of  the 
loquat  is  to  overbear,  and  for  the  production  of  commercially 
valuable  fruit  this  must  be  checked  by  pruning  and  thinning. 
The  best  time  for  pruning  is  soon  after  the  crop  has  been  har- 
vested. 

Propagation. 

In  many  countries  it  is  still  the  custom  to  propagate  the 
loquat  by  seed,  but  in  regions  where  the  commercial  cultivation 
of  this  fruit  has  received  serious  attention,  this  method  has 
been  replaced  by  budding  and  grafting.  Seedling  loquats 
are  no  more  dependable  than  seedlings  of  other  tree-fruits.  As 
ornamental  trees  for  parks  and  dooryards  they  can  be  rec- 
ommended, but  they  will  not  serve  when  commercially  market- 
able fruit  is  required. 

Choice  named  varieties  are  budded  or  grafted  on  seedling 
loquat  stocks  or  on  the  quince.  Other  plants  have  been  used 
as  stock-plants,  but  have  not  proved  altogether  satisfactory. 


260     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

When  budded  on  quince  the  tree  is  dwarfed.  This  stock  is 
easy  to  bud ;  and  it  is  believed  to  produce  a  tree  which  bears 
at  an  early  age,  while  its  fibrous  root-system  readily  permits 
of  transplanting.  In  spite  of  these  advantages  it  is  considered 
unsatisfactory  in  Florida,  and  in  California  it  is  commonly 
held  that  the  seedling  loquat  is  preferable.  To  produce  stock- 
plants,  loquat  seeds  may  be  planted  singly  in  four-inch  pots; 
they  may  be  sown  in  flats  of  light  soil  and  later  transplanted ; 
or  they  may  be  germinated  in  moist  sand  or  sawdust  and  potted 
off  as  soon  as  they  are  3  or  4  inches  high.  Potting  soil  should  be 
light  and  loamy.  After  the  young  plants  are  8  inches  high, 
they  may  be  planted  in  the  field  in  nursery  rows.  When  the 
stems  are  about  \  inch  in  diameter  at  the  base,  the  plants  are 
ready  for  budding  or  grafting. 

In  California,  budding  is  best  done  in  October  or  November. 
Bud  wood  should  be  of  young  smooth  wood,  preferably  that 
which  has  turned  brown  and  lost  its  pubescence  and  from  which 
the  leaves  have  dropped.  Shield-budding  is  the  method  used 
(a  description  of  the  operation  will  be  found  in  the  chapter  on 
the  avocado).  The  buds  should  be  cut  at  least  1J  inches  long. 
After  inserting  them  in  T-incisions  made  in  the  stocks  at  a 
convenient  point  not  far  above  the  ground,  they  are  tied  with 
raffia,  soft  cotton  string,  or  waxed  tape.  Three  or  four  weeks 
later  the  wraps  should  be  loosened  to  keep  them  from  cutting 
into  the  stock,  and  the  eye  should  be  left  exposed.  The  wraps 
should  not  be  finally  removed  until  the  bud  has  made  several 
inches'  growth.  In  California  the  stock-plant  is  cut  off  2  or 
3  inches  above  the  bud  in  early  spring.  This  usually  forces 
the  bud  to  grow,  but  sometimes  it  shows  a  tendency  to  lie 
dormant,  and  many  adventitious  buds  develop  around  the  top 
of  the  stock.  These  must  be  removed  as  fast  as  they  make  their 
appearance. 

In  Florida  it  has  been  found  that  buds  unite  readily  with 
the  stock-plant,  but  that  it  is  difficult  to  force  them  into  growth. 


THE  LOQUAT  AND  ITS  RELATIVES  261 

For  this  reason  grafting  has  superseded  budding  in  that  state. 
The  stocks  should  be  of  the  same  size  as  for  budding,  and  the 
cion  should  be  of  well-matured  wood.  Cleft-grafting  is  the 
method  commonly  employed. 

The  young  trees  should  be  stake-trained  in  the  nursery, 
and  headed  24  to  30  inches  above  the  ground.  In  a  year  from 
the  time  of  budding  or  grafting  they  should  be  ready  for 
transplanting. 

In  California,  budded  or  grafted  trees  begin  to  bear  the  second 
or  third  year  after  they  are  planted  in  the  orchard,  but  they  can- 
not be  expected  to  produce  commercial  crops  until  four  or  five 
years  old.  According  to  Condit,  a  ten-year-old  tree  should 
produce  200  pounds  of  fruit.  Early  in  the  season,  the  latter 
part  of  February  and  all  of  March,  prices  are  high.  Fancy 
fruit  will  bring  25  to  35  cents  a  pound  at  this  time.  Later, 
in  May  and  June,  the  average  price  drops  to  5  cents  and 
occasionally  lower,  but  fancy  fruit  rarely  sells  for  less  than  8 
to  10  cents  a  pound.  It  is  the  opinion  of  experienced  loquat- 
growers  that  the  gross  returns  from  an  orchard  should  be  $300 
to  $500  an  acre;  more  than  this  has  been  obtained  in  some 
instances.  The  advisability  of  planting  early  varieties,  in 
order  to  place  the  crop  on  the  market  while  prices  are  high,  is 
emphasized  by  all  growers.  If  late  fruit  is  to  be  produced,  it 
should  be  of  large-fruited  varieties  which  ship  well ;  otherwise 
the  profits  will  be  small. 

Yield  and  picking. 

The  loquat  tree  is  productive,  and  a  regular  bearer.  Barring 
crop  failures  due  to  severe  frosts  at  flowering  time,  the  trees 
rarely  fail  to  produce  well  every  year.  Their  tendency  is  to 
overbear,  with  the  result  that  the  fruits  are  apt  to  be  undersized. 
It  has  been  profitable  to  thin  the  crop,  since  the  increased  size 
of  the  fruits  remaining  on  the  tree  more  than  compensates  for 
the  loss  of  those  removed.  The  practice  of  experienced  loquat- 


262     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

growers  in  California  is  to  clip  out  the  ends  of  the  fruit-clusters 
with  a  pair  of  thinning-shears :  this  should  be  done  as  soon 
as  the  young  fruits  have  formed.  Where  choice  varieties  are 
grown,  and  where  birds  and  insects  are  troublesome,  it  has  been 
profitable,  in  a  small  way,  to  protect  the  fruit  by  inclosing  each 
cluster  in  a  cloth  or  paper  bag.  The  Japanese,  who  practice 
bagging  in  connection  with  the  production  of  fancy  loquats, 
find  that  it  results  in  larger  fruit  and  a  greater  degree  of  uni- 
formity in  ripening. 

The  season  during  which  loquats  are  marketed  in  California 
extends  from  the  latter  part  of  February  to  June.  A  given 
variety  may  ripen  several  weeks  earlier  in  one  locality  than  in 
another.  In  Florida  the  season  is  considerably  earlier  than  in 
California.  The  fruits  should  be  left  on  the  tree  until  they  are 
fully  ripe,  unless  it  is  desired  to  use  them  for  jelly  or  for  cooking. 
Unripe  the  loquat  is  decidedly  acid,  whereas  the  fully  ripe  fruit 
is  sweet  and  delicious.  Clippers  such  as  are  used  by  orange- 
pickers  are  employed  in  gathering  the  fruit.  Sometimes  whole 
clusters  can  be  picked,  and  again  it  may  be  necessary  to  clip 
off  two  or  three  ripe  fruits  and  leave  the  remaining  ones  to 
mature. 

The  fruit  is  sorted  and  graded  by  hand.  For  shipping  to 
near-by  markets  it  is  packed  in  thirty-pound  wooden  boxes 
("lug  boxes")  without  the  use  of  excelsior,  straw,  or  other  soft 
material  to  prevent  bruising.  For  distant  markets  smaller 
packages  and  considerable  care  will  be  required,  since  the  fruit 
is  bruised  rather  easily. 

Pests  and  diseases. 

The  principal  enemies  of  the  loquat  in  California  are  pear- 
blight  (Bacillus  amylovorus  Trev.)  and  loquat-scab  (Fusi- 
cladium  dendriticum  var.  eriobotryce  Scalia).  Condit  says  of 
the  former :  "  The  pear  blight  is  a  serious  enemy  of  the  loquat 
at  times,  blossom  blight  often  being  especially  abundant  on 


THE  LOQUAT  AND  ITS   RELATIVES  263 

trees  during  the  spring  months.  Infected  twigs  should  be  cut 
off  well  back  of  the  diseased  area  and  burned,  care  being  taken 
to  sterilize  the  pruning  shears  in  alcohol  or  formalin  after  each 
cut  so  as  to  reduce  the  danger  of  further  infection.  Occasionally 
entire  trees  are  killed  by  the  blight,  which  gradually  extends 
downward  from  the  branches  into  the  trunk,  although  in  most 
cases  the  disease  does  not  seem  to  progress  much  beyond  the 
branches.  Some  varieties  are  more  susceptible  than  others. 
For  example,  the  Advance  is  quite  resistant  and  the  trees  of  the 
Victor,  which  were  very  susceptible  when  young,  have  in  later 
years  become  more  or  less  immune;  the  Champagne  showed 
considerable  blossom  blight  in  the  spring  of  1914,  but  to  no 
greater  extent  than  young  trees  of  other  varieties.  The  trees 
seem  to  gain  resistance  as  they  grow  older." 

In  regard  to  the  scab  he  says :  "  This  is  reported  to  be 
a  serious  disease  of  the  loquat  in  Australia.  The  fruit  is 
attacked  when  half  grown  by  brownish  black  spots,  which  soon 
extend,  stop  its  further  development,  and  disfigure  its  appear- 
ance. The  fleshy  part  of  the  fruit  becomes  desiccated  and  the 
skin  seems  to  cling  to  the  stones.  A  large  proportion  of  the 
crop  may  in  a  short  space  of  time  be  rendered  absolutely  un- 
salable. It  is  also  well  known  in  Italy  upon  the  leaves.  In 
California  the  scab  is  quite  common  both  on  nursery  and 
bearing  trees,  attacking  both  leaves  and  fruit.  .  .  .  Spraying 
with  Bordeaux  mixture  after  the  blossoms  have  fallen  and  the 
fruit  is  setting  should  prove  an  effective  remedy." 

In  Florida  the  flowers  are  sometimes  blighted  by  the  an- 
thracnose  fungus  (Colletotrichum  glceosporiaides  Penz.).  Bor- 
deaux mixture,  prepared  according  to  a  3-3-50  formula,  should 
be  used  to  combat  this  disease. 

E.  O.  Essig  *  mentions  four  insects  which  occasionally  attack 
the  loquat  in  California.  One  of  these  is  the  well-known 
codlin-moth  (Cydia  pomonella  L.).  Another  is  the  green  apple 
1  Injurious  and  Beneficial  Insects  of  California. 


264     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

aphis  (Aphis  pomi  DeGeer),  and  the  remaining  two  are  scale 
insects,  one  the  San  Jose  scale  (Aspidiotus  perniciosus  Corn- 
stock),  and  the  other  the  Florida  wax  scale  (Ceroplastes  flori- 
densis  Comstock).  None  of  these  insects  is  a  serious  pest  at 
present.  In  other  countries  the  fruit  is  sometimes  attacked 
by  the  Mediterranean  fruit-fly  (Ceratitis  capitata  Wied.)  and 
the  Queensland  fruit-fly  (Bactrocera  tryoni  Froggatt).  In 
India  the  anar  caterpillar  (Virachola  isocrates  Fabr.)  bores  in 
the  fruit. 

Varieties. 

The  regions  in  which  named  varieties  of  the  loquat  have 
been  developed  are  China,  Japan,  Queensland,  India,  Sicily, 
Algeria,  and  California. 

Little  is  known  of  the  Chinese  varieties.  Frank  N.  Meyer 
observed  several  in  his  travels  in  China,  but  mentioned  specif- 
ically only  one,  the  pai-bibaw,  or  white  loquat.  T.  Ikeda  lists 
forty-six  varieties  which  are  cultivated  in  Japan,  but  only  nine 
of  them  are  important.  One  of  them,  Tanaka,  has  been  intro- 
duced into  the  United  States  by  David  Fairchild  and  into  Algeria 
by  L.  Trabut.  Four  sorts  are  listed  by  the  Government 
Botanical  Garden  at  Saharanpur,  India,  but  only  one,  the 
Golden  Yellow,  is  recommended  by  A.  C.  Hartless,  Superin- 
tendent of  the  Garden.  The  Queensland  varieties  are  not 
extensively  planted,  and  probably  are  not  so  good  as  those  of 
California.  Out  of  five  or  six  named  forms  which  have  origi- 
nated in  Italy  (including  Sicily),  not  one  has  been  planted 
extensively.  More  than  fifteen  varieties  have  been  described 
from  Algeria,  but  most  of  them  have  already  been  discarded. 
One,  named  Taza,  which  Trabut  produced  by  crossing  Tanaka 
and  one  of  the  best  Algerian  loquats,  is  considered  meritorious. 

Most  of  the  improved  sorts  at  present  cultivated  in  California 
and  Florida  have  been  produced  by  C.  P.  Taft  of  Orange, 
California.  Taft  has  done  more  than  any  other  man  in  the 


THE  LOQUAT  AND  ITS  RELATIVES  265 

United  States  to  improve  the  loquat.  His  method  of  procedure 
has  been  to  grow  a  large  number  of  seedlings  and  select  the 
most  desirable  ones.  In  this  way  he  has  established  eight 
named  varieties,  of  which  Champagne,  Advance,  Early  Red, 
Premier,  and  Victor  are  the  best. 

Little  attention  has  been  devoted  to  the  classification 
of  loquat  varieties.  Takeo  Kusano,  professor  in  the  Imperial 
College  of  Agriculture  and  Forestry  at  Kagoshima,  states  that 
the  Japanese  classify  them  into  two  groups,  called  Chinese 
and  Japanese.  The  Chinese  type  is  large,  pyriform,  and  deep 
orange-colored,  while  the  Japanese  is  smaller,  lighter  colored, 
and  sometimes  slender  in  form.  This  classification  may  corre- 
spond to  one  suggested  in  1908  by  L.  Trabut  of  Algiers.  Trabut's 
two  groups  were  defined,  one  as  having  crisp  white  flesh  and 
the  other  orange  or  yellow  flesh. 

The  Chinese  group,  so  far  as  is  known  at  present,  includes 
only  late-ripening  varieties.  The  flesh  differs  in  texture  from 
that  of  loquats  belonging  to  the  Japanese  group,  while  the 
flavor  is  very  sweet.  Kusano  states  that  Tanaka  belongs  to 
this  class.  The  variety  known  in  California  as  Thales,  which 
is  thought  by  some  to  be  identical  with  Tanaka  or  very  close 
to  it,  appears  also  to  belong  to  the  Chinese  list. 

The  Japanese  group  includes  the  loquats  of  California  origin, 
such  as  Champagne  and  Premier.  These  fruits  have  not  the 
firm  meaty  flesh  of  the  Chinese  group,  but  are  more  juicy, 
and  also  are  distinct  in  flavor.  The  flesh  is  whitish  or  light- 
colored,  except  in  the  variety  Early  Red. 

The  varieties  described  below  are  the  important  ones  culti- 
vated in  the  United  States  at  the  present  time.  For  others  of 
minor  value,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Condit's  bulletin  and  to 
the  articles  by  Trabut  in  the  Revue  Horticole  de  TAlgerie. 

Advance.  —  Shape  pyriform ;  size  large,  weight  2|  ounces,  length 
2£  inches,  breadth  1|  inches;  base  somewhat  tapering;  apex  narrow, 
the  basin  medium  deep,  narrow,  abrupt,  corrugated;  the  calyx-seg- 


266     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

ments  short,  converging,  the  eye  closed ;  fruit-cluster  large,  compact ; 
surface  downy,  deep  yellow  in  color;  skin  thick  and  tough;  flesh 
whitish,  translucent,  melting  and  very  juicy;  flavor  subacid,  very 
pleasant ;  quality  good ;  seeds  commonly  4  or  5,  the  seed  cavity  not 
large.  Season  March  to  June  at  Orange,  California. 

This  variety  was  originated  by  C.  P.  Taft  of  Orange,  California, 
in  1897.  It  is  a  productive  variety,  and  the  fruit-clusters  are  large 
and  handsome. 

Champagne.  —  Shape  oval  to  pyriform ;  size  large,  weight  2  ounces, 
length  1\  inches,  breadth  \\  inches;  base  tapering,  slender;  apex 
flattened,  rather  narrow,  the  basin  shallow,  narrow,  flaring,  and  the 
calyx-segments  broad,  short,  the  eye  small,  open;  fruit-cluster  large, 
loose ;  surface  deep  yellow  in  color  with  a  grayish  bloom ;  skin  thick, 
tough,  somewhat  astringent;  flesh  whitish,  translucent,  melting,  and 
very  juicy,  flavor  mildly  subacid,  sprightly  and  pleasant ;  quality  very 
good ;  seeds  3  or  4,  the  seed  cavity  not  large. 
Season  late  April  and  May  at  Orange,  Cali- 
fornia. 

Originated  by  C.  P.  Taft  at  Orange,  Cali- 
fornia, in  1908.     Taft  considers  it  superior 
to  his  other  varieties  in  flavor.     It  is  preco- 
cious and  productive. 
FIG   32      The   Premier  Early  Red.  —  Shape  oval  pyriform  to  ob- 

loquat,  of  California  origin  lonS  PY^orm ;  size  medium  large,  weight  2 
which  has  been  planted  ounces,  length  2  finches,  breadth  If  inches  ; 
commercially.  (X  i)  base  tapering  slightly ;  apex  broad,  flattened, 

with  the  basin  shallow,  narrow,  abrupt,  the 

calyx-segments  short,  broad,  the  eye  small  and  closed;  fruit-cluster 
compact ;  surface  yellowish  orange,  tinged  with  red  in  the  fully  ripe 
fruit ;  skin  thick,  tough,  acid ;  flesh  pale  orange,  translucent,  melting 
and  very  juicy;  flavor  very  sweet,  pleasant;  quality  good;  seeds  2 
or  3,  the  seed  cavity  not  large.  Season  February  to  April  at  Orange, 
California. 

The  Early  Red  loquat  was  originated  by  C.  P.  Taft  of  Orange,  Cali- 
fornia, in  1909.  This  is  the  earliest  variety  known  in  California. 
It  is  valuable  for  commercial  cultivation  in  regions  that  are  free  from 
severe  frosts. 

Premier  (Fig.  32).  —  Shape  oval  to  oblong-pyrif orm ;  size  large, 
weight  1\  ounces,  length  1\  inches,  breadth  If  inches;  base  tapering 
slightly ;  apex  flattened,  the  basin  shallow,  moderately  broad,  rounded, 
the  calyx-segments  short,  the  eye  large,  nearly  open ;  surface  orange- 
yellow  to  salmon-orange  in  color,  downy ;  skin  moderately  thick  and 
tough ;  flesh  whitish,  translucent,  melting  and  juicy ;  flavor  subacid, 
pleasant ;  quality  good ;  seeds  4  or  5,  the  seed  cavity  not  large.  Season 
April  and  May  at  Orange,  California. 


THE   LOQUAT   AND   ITS   RELATIVES 


267 


Originated  by  C.  P.  Taf t  of  Orange,  California,  in  1899.  It  is  a  good 
variety  for  home  use,  but  not  a  good  shipper. 

Tanaka.  —  Shape  commonly  obovoid,  weight  2  to  3  ounces.     L. 
Trabut  says  of  it:     "Tanaka  is  characterized  by  a  beautiful  color, 
remarkable  size,  firm  flesh  of  rich  color,  agreeable  perfume,  and  little 
acidity.     The  proportion  of  flesh  to  seeds  is  large.     This  loquat  owes 
to  the  consistence  of  its  flesh  unusual  keeping  quality,  — it  can  be 
handled  without  turning  black.     Left  for  a 
week  it  wrinkles  and  dries  but  does  not  rot. 
Among  the  plants,  grafted  on  quince,  which 
were  introduced  from  Japan,  two  subvari- 
eties  can  be  distinguished ;   one  with  pear- 
shaped    fruits,     the     other     subspherical. 
Tanaka  is  vigorous,  the  leaf  a  little  narrower 
thaninourloquats.    The  tree  is  productive."       FJG    33     Thaleg  ^ 
Tanaka  is   famed  as  the  largest   loquat  m  iate-ripening,  large,  and  of  ex- 
Japan,  and  one  of   the  best.     It    has  been  cellent  quality.     (X  about  £) 
planted  in  Algeria  and  in  California. 

Tholes  (Fig.  33).  —  Shape  round  to  pyriform;  size  large,  weight 
2\  to  2f  ounces,  length  2f  inches,  breadth  1  f  to  2  inches ;  base  rounded ; 
apex  flattened,  the  basin  shallow  and  flaring,  the  calyx-segments  broad 
and  short,  eye  open  or  closed;  surface  yellow-orange  to  orange  in 
color;  skin  not  thick,  tender;  flesh  orange-colored,  firm  and  meaty, 
juicy ;  flavor  sweet,  suggesting  the  apricot ;  quality  good ;  seeds  4  or 
5,  the  seed  cavity  not  large.  Season  April  to  June  at  Placentia, 
California. 

Syns.  Placentia  Giant,  Gold  Nvgget.  Introduced  into  California, 
without  name,  from  Japan  betwen  1880  and  1890.  It  is  a  large,  hand- 
some fruit,  and  possesses  unusually  good  shipping  qualities.  It  is 
considered  to  be  very  close  to  Tanaka,  if  not 
synonymous  with  that  variety. 

Victor  (Fig.  34).  —  Shape  oblong-pyri- 
form;  size  large,  weight  1\  ounces,  length 
1\  inches,  breadth  If  inches  ;  base  tapering 
slightly;  apex  slightly  flattened,  with  a 
shallow,  flaring  basin;  fruit-cluster  large, 
loose;  surface  deep  yellow  in  color;  skin 
moderately  thick  and  tough ;  flesh  whitish,- 
translucent,  melting,  very  juicy;  flavor 
sweet,  not  very  rich;  quality  good;  seeds  3  to  5,  the  seed  cavity 
medium-sized.  The  season  of  this  variety  is  May  and  June  at  Orange, 
California. 

Originated  by  C.  P.  Taft  of  Orange,  California,  in  1899.  A  large 
and  showy  fruit,  but  not  considered  valuable  in  California  because  it 
ripens  late  in  the  season.  It  is  considered  especially  good  for  canning. 


FIG.  34. 
quat. 


The    Victor   lo- 
(X  about  i) 


268     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

THE  CAPULIN  (Plate  XIII) 
(Prunus  salicifolia,  HBK.) 

One  of  the  best  rosaceous  fruits  of  tropical  countries  is  the 
capulin  or  wild  cherry  of  Central  America  and  northern  South 
America.  In  its  present  wild  and  semi-wild  state  a  fruit  of 
fairly  good  quality,  it  would  seem  that  with  a  little  attention 
from  plant-breeders  it  might  become  a  valuable  addition  to  the 
list  of  fruits  suitable  for  moist  subtropical  regions.  Geographi- 
cally it  is  a  tropical  fruit,  but  in  climatic  requirements  it  is 
distinctly  subtropical,  for  it  does  not  thrive  upon  the  tropical 
littoral,  but  grows  in  cool  mountain  regions  at  elevations  of 
4000  to  9000  feet.  It  should,  therefore,  be  sufficiently  hardy 
to  permit  of  cultivation  as  far  north  as  California,  Florida, 
and  the  Gulf  states,  and  it  may  also  be  of  value  for  northern 
India,  southern  Brazil,  and  similar  regions. 

The  botany  of  this  species  is  confused.  It  seems  to  differ 
very  little  from  the  Prunus  Capollin,  Zucc.,  of  Mexico  (P. 
Capuli,  Cav.,  Cerasus  Capollin,  DC) ;  possibly  the  two  are 
identical.  Prunus  Capollin  is  abundant  in  the  Mexican  high- 
lands, where  it  is  an  important  fruit.  Prunus  salicifolia  is 
supposed  to  be  found  only  in  South  America,  but  specimens 
collected  in  Guatemala  have  been  identified  as  of  this  species. 
Horticulturally  there  is  little  difference  between  the  capulins 
of  Mexico  and  those  of  Central  America.  The  name  is  taken 
from  the  Nahuatl  language  of  Mexico.  In  Spanish  the  fruit  is 
often  termed  cereza  (cherry). 

The  tree  is  erect,  often  somewhat  slender,  and  reaches  a 
height  of  30  feet.  The  trunk  is  stout,  reaching  as  much  as 
3  feet  in  thickness,  with  bark  rough  and  grayish.  The  leaves, 
which  are  borne  upon  slender  petioles  f  inch  long,  are  commonly 
4J  inches  in  length,  oblong-lanceolate  in  outline,  with  a  long 
slender  tip,  and  are  deep  green  on  the  upper  surface,  glaucous 


THE  LOQUAT   AND  ITS  RELATIVES  269 

below,  with  margins  finely  serrate.  The  flowers,  which  in 
Guatemala  are  produced  from  January  to  May,  are  white,  about 
f  of  an  inch  broad,  very  numerous,  on  slender  racemes  2  to  4 
inches  long.  As  many  as  fifteen  or  twenty  fruits  sometimes 
develop  on  a  raceme,  but  half  or  more  fall  before  reaching  matur- 
ity. The  ripening  season  in  Guatemala  is  May  to  September. 
The  fruits  resemble  northern  cherries  in  appearance ;  they  are  \ 
to  |  inch  in  diameter,  and  deep,  glossy,  maroon-purple  in  color. 
The  skin  is  thin  and  tender,  though  sufficiently  firm  for  the  fruit 
not  to  be  easily  injured  by  handling.  The  flesh  is  pale  green, 
meaty,  and  full  of  juice,  and  the  flavor  sweet,  suggestive  of  the 
Bigarreau  type  of  cherry,  with  a  trace  of  bitterness  in  the  skin. 
The  stone  is  rather  large  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  fruit. 
Pleasant  to  eat  out  of  hand,  this  cherry  can  also  be  used 
in  various  other  ways,  —  stewed,  preserved  whole,  or  made  into 
jam.  In  the  highlands  of  Guatemala,  where  it  is  abundant,  it 
is  usually  eaten  as  a  fresh  fruit  or  made  into  a  sweet  preserve. 
While  not  equal  to  the  cultivated  cherries  of  the  North,  —  fruits 
which  have  been  produced  by  generations  of  selection  and 
vegetative  propagation,  —  the  capulin  is  a  fruit  of  remarkably 
good  quality  for  one  which  has  never  had  the  benefit  of  in- 
telligent cultivation  and  has  been  propagated  only  by  seed. 
Naturally,  some  trees  produce  much  better  fruit  than  others, 
and  it  will  be  worth  while  to  select  the  best  seedling  forms  now 
existing  in  tropical  America  and  propagate  them  by  budding 
or  grafting. 

THE  MANZANILLA  (Plate  XIII) 
(Cratsegus  spp.) 

The  manzanilla  of  Guatemala  and  the  tejocote  of  Mexico 
are  fruits  so  similar  in  character  that  they  may  perhaps  belong 
to  one  species;  the  former  is  considered  at  present  to  be 
Cratcegus  stipulosa,  Steud.,  and  the  latter  C.  mexicana,  Mo?.  & 


270     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

Sesse.  It  may  be  allowable  to  use  the  common  name  manzanilla 
(the  diminutive  of  the  Spanish  manzana,  hence  little  apple) 
for  both,  since  it  is  better  adapted  to  the  English  language 
than  the  Mexican  tejocote  (from  the  Nahuatl  texocotl,  meaning 
stone-plum) .  According  to  Gabriel  Alcocer,  Cratagus  stipulosa 
is  found  in  Mexico  as  well  as  in  Guatemala. 

The  manzanilla  closely  resembles  some  of  the  northern  haws 
in  appearance,  but  it  is  a  larger  fruit  than  most  of  the  latter. 
It  occurs  only  in  the  highlands,  at  elevations  of  3000  to  9000 
feet.  It  withstands  heavy  frosts  unharmed,  and  should  be 
suitable  for  cultivation  in  subtropical  regions  with  rather  dry 
climates.  It  has  done  well  in  southern  California,  where  it 
was  introduced  some  years  ago  by  F.  Franceschi  under  the  name 
Cratcegus  guatemalensis. 

The  plant  is  variable  in  habit,  in  some  cases  shrubby,  in 
others  becoming  a  small  tree,  with  a  short  thick  trunk.  Com- 
monly it  is  seen  as  an  erect  slender  tree  about  20  feet  high.  In 
spring  it  produces  white  flowers  resembling  those  of  the  apple. 
In  early  fall,  beginning  about  October,  the  yellow  fruits  ripen 
and  remain  abundant  in  the  markets  of  Mexico  and  Guatemala 
until  Christmas.  They  resemble  small  apples  in  appearance. 
The  largest  specimens  are  nearly  2  inches  in  diameter,  but  the 
average  size  is  not  over  1  inch.  The  flesh  is  mealy  in  texture, 
and  not  so  juicy  nor  so  sprightly  in  flavor  as  that  of  a  good 
apple.  The  seeds,  commonly  three  in  number,  are  rather  large. 

The  fruits,  which  are  much  used  for  decorative  purposes,  are 
eaten  in  the  form  of  jelly  and  preserves.  For  stewing,  they  are 
first  boiled  with  wood-ashes,  by  which  means  the  skin  is  easily 
removed ;  they  are  then  placed  in  hot  sirup  and  boiled  for  a 
short  time.  The  flavor  of  the  cooked  fruit  suggests  that  of 
stewed  apples. 

The  plant  is  simple  of  culture.  It  grows  most  commonly  on 
heavy  soil  and  does  not  require  a  large  amount  of  water. 
Propagation  is  usually  by  seed,  but  it  would  be  an  easy  matter 


THE   LOQUAT  AND  ITS   RELATIVES  271 

to  bud  or  graft  superior  varieties.  Both  in  Mexico  and  in 
Guatemala  the  European  pear  is  sometimes  top- worked  on  the 
manzanilla  by  cleft-grafting. 

THE  ICACO 

(Chrysobalanus  Icaco,  L.) 

Although  not  a  fruit  of  great  value,  the  icaco  is  extensively 
used  in  the  tropics,  especially  by  the  poorer  classes.  It  is 
abundant  along  the  seacoasts  of  tropical  America  as  a  wild 
plant,  and  is  frequently  planted  in  gardens.  In  southern 
Florida,  where  it  is  known  as  coco-plum,  it  is  not  considered 
valuable.  In  Cuba,  where  the  Spanish  name  icaco  (often  spelled 
hicaco  and  jicaco)  is  current,  the  wild  fruit  is  gathered  and  made 
into  a  sweet  preserve,  which  is  served  in  Habana  restaurants  as 
a  sobremesa  or  dessert.  In  Brazil,  where  it  is  called  uajuru,  its 
use  is  limited.  It  is  said  to  occur  in  Africa  as  well  as  in  America. 

The  icaco  is  a  large  shrub  or  small  tree,  attaining  a  maximum 
height  of  25  or  30  feet.  When  grown  as  a  shrub  it  is  rather 
ornamental  and  it  is  sometimes  planted  for  this  reason.  The 
leaves  are  obovate  or  obcordate  in  outline,  about  2  inches  long, 
thick,  glossy,  and  deep  green  in  color.  The  flowers  are  small 
and  white,  in  axillary  racemes  or  cymes.  The  fruit  resembles  a 
large  plum  in  appearance,  being  oval,  1^  inches  long,  and  pinkish 
white,  magenta-red,  or  almost  black  in  color.  The  skin  is  thin, 
and  the  white  flesh,  which  is  cottony  and  of  insipid  taste, 
adheres  closely  to  the  large  oblong  seed. 

Jacques  Huber  says  that  the  icaco  grows  wild  in  the  Amazon 
region  on  dry  sandy  soils.  In  other  parts  of  tropical  America 
it  is  often  found  on  moist  rich  ground.  It  is  propagated  only 
by  seed.  While  there  is  hope  of  improving  the  quality  of  the 
fruit  through  selection,  it  is  doubtful,  in  view  of  the  abundance 
of  more  promising  subjects,  whether  the  species  would  repay 
attention.  The  plant  is  easily  grown  and  withstands  light  frosts. 


CHAPTER  IX 
FRUITS   OF   THE   MYRTLE   FAMILY 

THE  myrtaceous  fruits  comprise  an  interesting  lot  of  aromatic 
things,  and  with  blossoms  bearing  many  long  and  conspicu- 
ous stamens.  The  Myrtacese  include  many  of  the  spices,  as 
clove,  cinnamon,  allspice,  nutmeg.  The  eucalyptus  belongs 
here;  also  such  ornamental  plants  as  myrtus,  callistemon, 
metrosideros,  melaleuca.  The  guava  is  the  most  important 
pomological  fruit  of  the  family.  Most  of  the  guavas  belong 
to  what  is  usually  considered  to  be  a  single  species,  although 
several  Latin  names  have  been  applied  in  the  group. 

THE  GUAVA  (Fig.  35) 
(Psidium  Giwjava,  L.) 

The  guava,  while  useful  in  many  ways,  is  preeminently 
a  fruit  for  jelly-making  and  other  culinary  purposes.  To 
the  horticulturist  the  species  is  admirable  as  being  one  of  the 
least  exacting  of  all  tropical  fruits  in  cultural  requirements, 
for  it  grows  and  fruits  under  such  unfavorable  conditions, 
and  spreads  so  rapidly  by  means  of  its  seeds,  that  it  has  in  truth 
become  a  pest  in  some  regions.  It  is  a  fruit  of  commercial 
importance  in  many  countries,  and  one  whose  culture  promises 
to  become  even  more  extensive  than  it  is  at  present,  for  guava 
jelly  is  generally  agreed  to  be  facile  princeps  of  its  kind,  and  is 
certain  to  find  increasing  appreciation  in  the  Temperate  Zone. 

272 


FRUITS  OF   THE  MYRTLE  FAMILY 


273 


The  first  account  of  the  guava  was  written  in  1526  by  Gonzalo 
Hernandez  de  Oviedo,  and  published  in  his  "  Natural  History 
of  the  Indies."  Oviedo  says : 

"The  guayabo  is  a  handsome  tree,  with  a  leaf  like  that  of 
the  mulberry,  but  smaller,  and  the  flowers  are  fragrant,  espe- 
cially those  of  a  cer- 
tain kind  of  these 
guayabos;  it  bears  an 
apple  more  substantial 
than  those  of  Spain, 
and  of  greater  weight 
even  when  of  the  same 
size,  and  it  contains 
many  seeds,  or  more 
properly  speaking,  it  is 
full  of  small  hard  stones, 
and  to  those  who  are 
not  used  to  eating  the 
fruit  these  stones  are 
sometimes  trouble- 
some; but  to  those 
familiar  with  it,  the 
fruit  is  beautiful  and 
appetizing,  and  some 
are  red  within,  others 
white ;  and  I  have  seen 
the  best  ones  in  the 
Isthmus  of  Darien  and 
nearby  on  the  main- 


Fio.  35.  The  common  guava  of  the  tropics 
(Psidium  Guajava),  an  American  plant  which  has 
become  naturalized  in  southern  Asia  and  else- 
where. (X  |) 


land ;  those  of  the  islands  are  not  so  good,  and  persons  who  are 
accustomed  to  it  esteem  it  as  a  very  good  fruit,  much  better 
than  the  apple." 

The  guava  is  an  arborescent  shrub  or  small  tree,  sometimes 
growing  to  25  or  30  feet.    The  trunk  is  slender,  with  greenish- 


274     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

brown  scaly  bark.  The  young  branchlets  are  quadrangular. 
The  leaves  are  oblong-elliptic  to  oval  in  outline,  3  to  6  inches 
long,  acute  to  rounded  at  the  apex,  finely  pubescent  below, 
with  the  venation  conspicuously  impressed  on  the  upper  surface. 
Flowers  are  produced  on  branchlets  of  recent  growth,  and  are 
an  inch  broad,  white,  solitary,  or  several  together  upon  a  slender 
peduncle.  The  calyx  splits  into  irregular  segments;  the  four 
petals  are  oval,  delicate  in  texture.  In  the  center  of  the  flower 
is  a  brush-like  cluster  of  long  stamens.  The  fruit  is  round, 
ovoid,  or  pyriform,  1  to  4  inches  in  length,  commonly  yellow  in 
color,  with  flesh  varying  from  white  to  deep  pink  or  salmon-red. 
Numerous  small,  reniform,  hard  seeds  are  embedded  in  the 
soft  flesh  toward  the  center  of  the  fruit.  The  flavor  is  sweet, 
musky,  and  very  distinctive  in  character,  and  the  ripe  fruit 
is  aromatic  in  a  high  degree. 

The  native  home  of  the  guava  is  in  tropical  America.  The 
exact  extent  of  its  distribution  in  pre-Columbian  days  is  not 
known.  In  the  opinion  of  Alphonse  DeCandolle,  it  occurred 
from  Mexico  to  Peru.  In  the  former  country  the  Aztec  name 
for  it  was  xalxocotl,  meaning  sand-plum,  probably  a  reference  to 
the  gritty  character  of  the  flesh.  The  name  guayaba  (whence 
the  English  guava)  is  believed  to  be  of  Haitian  origin.  The 
plant  was  carried  at  an  early  day  to  India,  where  it  has  become 
naturalized  in  several  places.  It  is  now  cultivated  throughout 
the  Orient.  In  Hawaii  it  has  become  thoroughly  naturalized. 
Occasional  specimens  are  said  to  be  found  along  the  Mediter- 
ranean coast  of  France,  and  in  Algeria.  In  short,  the  guava 
is  well  distributed  throughout  the  tropics  and  sub  tropics. 

In  the  United  States,  the  two  regions  in  which  guavas  can  be 
grown  are  Florida  and  southern  California.  The  plant  is  said 
by  P.  W.  Reasoner  to  have  been  introduced  into  the  former 
state  from  Cuba  in  1847.  It  is  now  naturalized  there  in  many 
places  and  cultivated  in  many  gardens.  It  is  successful  as 
far  north  as  the  Pinellas  peninsula  on  the  west  coast  and 


FRUITS  OF   THE  MYRTLE  FAMILY  275 

Cape  Canaveral  on  the  east,  but  has  been  grown  even  farther 
north.  If  frozen  down  to  the  ground,  the  plant  sends  up 
sprouts  which  make  rapid  growth  and  produce  fruit  in  two 
years.  In  California  the  species  has  not  become  common,  as 
it  has  in  Florida,  nor  is  it  suited  to  so  wide  a  range  of  territory 
in  the  former  as  in  the  latter  state.  Accordingly  it  can  only 
be  grown  successfully  in  California  in  protected  situations. 
At  Hollywood,  at  Santa  Barbara,  at  Orange,  and  in  other 
localities  it  grows  and  fruits  well,  although  occasional  severe 
frosts  may  kill  the  young  branches. 

Guayaba  is  the  common  name  of  Psidium  Guajava  throughout 
the  Spanish-speaking  parts  of  tropical  America.  The  French 
have  adopted  this  in  the  form  goyave,  the  Germans  as  guajava, 
and  the  Portuguese  as  goiaba.  The  latter  name  is  used  in  Brazil, 
where  the  indigenous  name  (Tupi  language)  is  araqd  guaqu 
(large  ara£u) .  In  the  Orient  there  are  many  local  names,  some 
of  them  derived  from  the  American  guayaba.  The  commonest 
Hindustani  name,  amrud,  means  "pear."  The  term  safari  am, 
meaning  "journey  mango,"  is  also  current  in  Hindustani. 

The  two  species  Psidium  pyriferum  and  P.  pomiferum  of 
Linnaeus  are  now  considered  to  be  the  pear-shaped  and  round 
varieties  of  P.  Guajava.  They  represent  two  of  the  many 
variations  which  occur  in  this  species.  The  pear-shaped  forms 
are  often  called  pear-guava,  and  the  round  ones  apple-guava. 
A  large  white-fleshed  kind  was  formerly  sold  by  Florida  nursery- 
men under  the  name  Psidium  guineense,  and  in  California  as 
P.  guianense;  but  it  is  now  known  to  be  a  horticultural  form 
of  P.  Guajava ,  as  is  also  a  round,  red-fleshed  variety  introduced 
into  California  under  the  name  P.  aromaticum.  The  true  P. 
guineense,  Sw.  (see  below)  has  been  itself  confused  with  P. 
Guajava,  but  can  be  distinguished  from  it  by  its  branchlets, 
which  are  compressed-cylindrical  in  place  of  quadrangular, 
and  by  the  number  of  the  transverse  veins,  which  is  less  than 
in  the  latter-named  species. 


276     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

The  fruit  is  eaten  in  many  ways,  out  of  hand,  sliced  with 
cream,  stewed,  preserved,  and  in  shortcakes  and  pies.  Com- 
mercially it  is  used  to  make  the  well-known  guava  jelly  and 
other  products.  When  well  made,  guava  jelly  is  deep  wine- 
colored,  clear,  of  very  firm  consistency,  and  retains  something 
of  the  pungent  musky  flavor  which  characterizes  the  fresh 
fruit.  In  Brazil  a  thick  jam,  known  as  goiabada,  is  manufac- 
tured and  sold  extensively.  A  similar  product  is  made  in 
Florida  and  the  West  Indies  under  the  name  of  guava  cheese 
or  guava  paste.  An  analysis  at  the  University  of  California 
showed  the  ripe  fruit  to  contain :  Water  84.08  per  cent,  ash 
0.67,  protein  0.76,  fiber  5.57,  total  sugars  5.45  (sucrose  none), 
starch,  etc.,  2.54,  fat  0.95. 

The  guava  succeeds  on  nearly  every  type  of  soil.  In  Cuba 
it  does  well  on  red  clay,  in  California  it  has  been  grown  on 
adobe,  and  in  Florida  it  thrives  on  soils  which  are  very  light  and 
sandy.  While  not  strictly  tropical  in  its  requirements,  it  can 
scarcely  be  called  subtropical.  It  is  found  in  the  tropics  at  all 
elevations  from  sea-level  to  5000  feet,  and  it  withstands  light 
frosts  in  California  and  Florida.  Mature  plants  have  been 
injured  by  temperatures  of  28°  or  29°,  but  the  vitality  of  the 
guava  is  so  great  that  it  quickly  recovers  from  frosts  which 
may  seem  to  have  damaged  it  severely.  Young  plants,  how- 
ever, may  be  killed  by  temperatures  of  only  one  or  two  degrees 
below  freezing.  As  regards  moisture,  writers  in  India  report 
that  the  guava  prefers  a  rather  dry  climate. 

The  plants  may  be  set  from  10  to  15  feet  apart,  the  latter 
distance  being  preferable.  They  should  be  mulched  with  weeds, 
grass,  or  other  loose  material  immediately  after  planting.  In 
certain  parts  of  India,  where  guava  cultivation  is  conducted 
commercially  on  an  extensive  scale,  it  is  the  custom  to  set  the 
plants  18  to  24  feet  apart.  Holes  2  feet  wide  and  deep  are 
prepared  to  receive  the  trees.  Occasionally  the  soil  is  tilled 
and  once  a  year  each  plant  is  given  about  20  pounds  of  barn- 


FRUITS  OF   THE  MYRTLE  FAMILY  277 

yard  manure.  During  the  dry  season  the  orchard  is  irrigated 
every  ten  days.  Very  little  pruning  is  done. 

Seedling  guavas  do  not  necessarily  produce  fruit  identical 
with  that  from  which  they  sprang.  It  is  the  custom  in  most 
regions  to  propagate  the  guava  only  by  seed,  but  choice  varieties 
which  originate  as  chance  seedlings  can  be  perpetuated  only 
by  some  vegetative  means  of  propagation,  such  as  budding  or 
grafting. 

Although  the  seeds  retain  their  viability  for  many  months, 
they  should  be  planted  as  soon  after  their  removal  from 
the  fruit  as  possible.  They  may  be  sown  in  flats  or  pans 
of  light  sandy  loam  and  covered  to  the  depth  of  i  inch.  When 
the  young  plants  appear  they  should  not  be  watered  too  lib- 
erally. After  they  have  made  their  second  leaves,  they  may 
be  transferred  into  small  pots.  Since  they  are  somewhat 
difficult  to  transplant  from  the  open  ground,  they  had  better 
be  carried  along  in  pots  until  ready  to  be  planted  in  the  orchard. 
The  proper  season  for  planting  varies  in  different  regions; 
in  India  it  is  said  to  be  July  or  August ;  in  California  it  is  April 
and  May;  while  in  Florida  October  and  March  are  good 
months. 

Both  shield-budding  and  patch-budding  are  successful  with 
the  guava.  Shield-budding  is  the  better  method  of  the  two. 
P.  J.  Wester,  who  says  that  the  guava  was  first  budded,  so  far 
as  known,  in  1894  by  H.  J.  Webber  at  Bradentown,  Florida, 
describes  the  method  in  the  Philippine  Agricultural  Review 
for  September,  1914.  He  states  that  budding  should  be  per- 
formed in  winter.  WThile  it  has  been  done  successfully  as  late 
as  May,  the  months  from  November  to  April  are  the  best  (in 
the  southern  hemisphere  the  season  would,  of  course,  be  at  the 
opposite  time  of  year).  The  stock-plants  should  be  young; 
it  is  best  to  use  them  just  as  soon  as  they  are  large  enough  to 
receive  the  bud.  When  inserted  in  old  stocks  the  buds  do  not 
sprout  readily.  The  method  of  budding  is  the  same  as  that 


278     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

described  for  the  avocado  and  mango.  The  bud  wood  should 
be  so  far  mature  that  the  green  color  shall  have  disappeared 
from  the  bark.  The  buds  should  be  cut  1  to  1 J  inches  long. 

Patch-budding  has  been  successful  in  California  when  large 
stock-plants  have  been  used.  They  should  have  stems  1  inch 
in  diameter,  and  the  buds  should  be  cut  1|  inches  in  length, 
square  or  oblong  in  form.  Propagation  by  cuttings  is  also 
possible  if  half-ripened  wood  is  used  and  bottom-heat  is  avail- 
able. 

A  simple  method  of  propagation,  which  may  be  employed 
when  it  is  desired  to  obtain  a  limited  number  of  plants  from 
a  bush  producing  fruits  of  particularly  choice  quality,  is  as 
follows :  With  a  sharp  spade  cut  into  the  soil  two  or  three 
feet  from  the  tree,  severing  the  roots  which  extend  outward 
from  the  trunk.  Sprouts  will  soon  make  then-  appearance. 
When  they  are  of  suitable  size  they  may  be  transplanted  to 
permanent  positions.  They  will,  of  course,  reproduce  the 
parent  variety  as  faithfully  as  a  bud  or  graft. 

The  guava  is  a  heavy  bearer  and  ripens  its  fruit  during  a  long 
season.  In  some  regions  guavas  are  obtainable  throughout 
the  year,  though  not  always  in  large  quantities.  Seedlings  come 
into  bearing  at  three  or  four  years  of  age ;  budded  plants  may 
bear  fruit  the  second  year  after  they  are  planted  in  the  orchard. 
Indian  horticulturists  state  that  the  plants  bear  heavily  for 
fifteen  to  twenty-five  years,  and  thereafter  gradually  decline  in 
production.  The  guava  is  not  a  long-lived  plant,  but  may 
live  and  bear  fruit  for  forty  years  or  more.  The  season  of 
ripening  in  India  is  November  to  January ;  in  Florida  and  the 
West  Indies  it  is  in  late  summer  and  autumn. 

The  guava  is  subject  to  the  attacks  of  numerous  insect  and 
fungous  enemies.  The  list  of  scale  insects  injurious  to  it  is  a 
particularly  long  one,  including  numerous  species  belonging 
to  the  genera  Aspidiotus,  Ceroplastes,  Icerya,  Pseudococcus, 
Pulvinaria,  and  Saissetia.  All  of  these  can  be  held  in  check  by 


FRUITS  OF   THE  MYRTLE  FAMILY  279 

the  usual  means,  i.e.,  spraying  with  kerosene  emulsion  or  some 
other  insecticide,  but  little  attention  is  given  to  this  matter  in 
most  tropical  countries.  The  fruit-flies,  including  species  of 
Anastrepha,  Ceratitis,  and  Dacus,  cause  serious  trouble  in 
many  regions.  It  is  said  that  80  per  cent  of  the  guavas  pro- 
duced in  Hawaii  have  in  some  seasons  been  infested  with  the 
larvse  of  the  Mediterranean  fruit-fly  (Ceratitis  capitata  Wied.). 
The  guava  fruit-rot,  a  species  of  Glomerella,  is  a  common 
fungous  disease  in  some  places.  There  are  other  pests,  some 
of  them  serious,  which  the  guava-grower  may  have  to 
combat. 

Within  the  species  there  evidently  exist  more  or  less  well- 
defined  races,  each  of  which  includes  many  seedling  variations. 
Of  true  horticultural  varieties,  propagated  by  cutting  or  graft- 
ing, there  are  as  yet  practically  none.  The  so-called  varieties 
listed  in  different  regions  are  presumably  seedling  races.  Indian 
nurserymen  distinguish  a  number  of  forms,  such  as  "smooth 
green,"  "red-fleshed,"  Karalia,  Mirzapuri,  and  Allahabad.  In 
the  United  States,  seedlings  are  offered  of  the  Allahabad  guava, 
and  of  forms  termed  Brazilian,  Peruvian,  lemon,  pear,  smooth 
green,  snow-white,  sour,  Perico,  and  Guinea.  The  number  of 
such  forms  which  could  be  listed  is  considerable.  The  Guinea 
variety,  a  white-fleshed,  sweet-fruited  guava  with  few  seeds,  has 
been  propagated  in  California  by  budding,  but  it  has  not  been 
planted  extensively. 

THE  STRAWBERRY  GUAVA  (Fig.  36) 
(Psidium  Cattleianum,  Sabine) 

Unlike  the  preceding  species,  the  strawberry  guava  is  sub- 
tropical in  its  requirements,  and  can  be  grown  wherever  the 
orange  succeeds.  It  is  ornamental  in  appearance,  and  for  this 
reason  has  become  a  favorite  garden-shrub  in  many  regions. 
Though  somewhat  less  valuable  than  the  tropical  guava  for 


280     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 


the  commercial  production  of  guava  jelly,  the  fruit  is  popular 
with  housewives  and  is  put  to  several  uses. 

The  strawberry  guava  is  ordinarily  a  bushy  shrub,  but  some- 
times becomes  a  small  tree  up  to  25  feet  high.  The  bark  is 
smooth,  gray-brown  in  color,  and  the  young  branchlets  are 

cylindrical  (not  quadran- 
gular as  in  P.  Guajava). 
The  leaves  are  elliptic  to 
obovate  in  outline,  acute, 
2  to  3  inches  long,  thick 
and  leathery  in  texture, 
somewhat  glossy,  and  deep 
green  in  color.  The  flow- 
ers, which  are  produced 
singly  upon  axillary  ped- 
uncles, are  white,  and 
nearly  an  inch  broad. 
The  calyx  is  obscurely 
lobed ;  the  corolla  is  com- 
posed of  four  orbicular 
petals.  The  numerous 
stamens  are  clustered  at 
the  bases  of  the  calyx  lobes. 
The  fruit  is  obovate  to 
round  in  form,  1  to  If 

FIG.  36.     The  strawberry  guava  (Psidium    inches    in    diameter,    pur- 

species  than  the  pHsh  re.d  in  coi°r- with  a 

thin  skin;  the  soft  flesh, 
which  is  white  toward  the  center,  contains  numerous  hard 
seeds.  The  flavor  is  sweet  and  aromatic,  suggesting  that 
of  the  strawberry  (whence  the  common  name).  It  has  not 
the  pronounced  muskiness  of  P.  Guajava,  and  for  this  reason 
is  preferred  by  some. 
.  The  strawberry  guava  is  a  native  of  Brazil,  whence  it  was 


FRUITS  OF   THE  MYRTLE  FAMILY  281 

carried  to  southern  China  at  an  early  period,  presumably  by 
the  Portuguese.  From  China  it  was  taken  to  Europe,  where 
it  was  for  some  time  considered  to  be  native  to  China  and  hence 
was  called  Chinese  guava.  It  has  been  planted  in  India,  but 
is  not  widely  known  in  that  country.  According  to  H.  F.  Mac- 
millan,  in  Ceylon  it  thrives  at  elevations  of  2000  to  4000  feet. 
In  the  Mediterranean  region  it  succeeds  in  southern  France, 
Spain,  Algeria,  and  elsewhere.  It  is  grown  in  Hawaii,  but  is 
not  common  there.  In  Mexico,  Central  America,  and  the 
West  Indies  it  is  occasionally  seen  in  gardens.  In  Brazil,  its 
native  home,  it  is  nowhere  extensively  cultivated.  In  the 
United  States  it  thrives  in  both  Florida  and  California. 

Besides  the  name  strawberry  guava,  the  terms  Cattley 
guava  and  Chinese  guava  are  sometimes  applied  to  this  species. 
In  Brazil  it  is  known  as  aracd  da  praia  and  aracd  vermelho. 
Nurserymen  in  the  United  States  have  sent  out  seedling  races 
or  horticultural  forms  of  this  species  under  several  botanical 
names ;  the  yellow-fruited  form  (variety  lucidum  of  horticulture) 
has  been  listed  as  Psidium  lucidum,  P.  chinense,  and  P.  sinense. 
A  form  distributed  in  California  under  the  name  P.  acre,  Ten., 
has  proved  to  be  identical  with  the  yellow-fruited  strawberry 
guava,  except  in  its  elongated  fruits.  Otto  Berg  considered 
P.  Cattleianum  and  P.  littorak,  Raddi,  synonyms  of  P.  variabile, 
Berg ;  more  recently,  however,  the  two  last-named  species  have 
been  included  under  P.  Cattleianum.  A  large-fruited  guava 
which  appears  to  be  nothing  more  than  a  form  of  this  species  has 
been  distributed  in  California  under  the  name  Psidium  Aracd. 
It  is  similar  to  the  yellow-fruited  strawberry  guava,  except  in 
its  larger  and  broader  leaves,  larger  fruit,  and  fewer  seeds. 

The  fruit  is  used  principally  for  jelly-making,  but  is  some- 
times eaten  out  of  hand.  An  analysis  made  at  the  University  of 
California  showed  the  ripe  fruit  to  contain :  Water  79.42  per 
cent,  ash  0.77,  protein  0.88,  fiber  6.58,  total  sugars  5.06, 
starch,  etc.,  6.49,  and  fat  0.80. 


282     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

Like  other  species  of  Psidium,  the  strawberry  guava  succeeds 
on  a  wide  variety  of  soils.  A  rich  sandy  loam  seems  to  suit 
it  best,  but  it  grows  well  on  red  clay  and  on  adobe.  It  is  not 
quite  so  successful  on  shallow  sandy  soils.  The  mature  plant 
withstands  severe  frosts  without  serious  injury;  temperatures 
of  22°  above  zero  have  not  killed  it.  A  dry  climate  suits  it 
better  than  a  moist  one,  if  the  soil  is  irrigated  with  reasonable 
frequency.  It  is  fairly  drought-resistant. 

Young  plants  12  inches  high  may  be  set  in  the  open  ground 
in  the  positions  they  are  to  occupy  permanently.  They  may 
be  spaced  10  X  10  feet  in  California,  but  in  the  tropics,  and  on 
rich  soil,  they  should  be  somewhat  farther  apart.  They 
require  the  same  cultural  treatment  as  the  tropical  guava. 
During  the  first  few  years  the  plants  retain  a  compact  bushy 
form ;  later  they  may  develop  trunks  and  become  small  trees. 
They  need  very  little  pruning. 

Propagation  is  usually  by  seed,  which  method  is  more  satis- 
factory with  the  strawberry  guava  than  it  is  with  many  other 
of  the  fruits  here  discussed,  since  there  is  less  variation  among 
seedlings.  Particularly  choice  varieties  cannot,  however,  be 
propagated  by  this  means.  Cuttings  are  sometimes  grown, 
and  the  species  may  be  budded  in  the  same  manner  as  Psidium 
Guajava.  Seeds  are  germinated  as  in  that  species. 

The  plants  come  into  bearing  very  early  and  should  pro- 
duce a  few  fruits  the  second  or  third  year  after  planting.  Their 
growth  is  slow;  hence  good  crops  cannot  be  expected  until 
the  plants  are  five  or  six  years  old.  The  season  of  ripening  in 
Florida  and  California  is  from  August  to  October. 

The  strawberry  guava  suffers  much  less  from  the  attacks  of 
insect  parasites  than  does  the  tropical  guava.  As  a  garden 
plant  in  California  and  Florida  it  has  thus  far  been  subject  to 
few  pests. 

No  horticultural  varieties  have  as  yet  been  established.  The 
seedling  race  or  botanical  variety  lucidum,  known  as  the  Chinese 


FRUITS  OF   THE  MYRTLE  FAMILY  283 

or  yellow  Cattley  guava,  differs  from  the  typical  strawberry 
guava  in  its  sulfur-yellow  colbr  and  more  delicate  flavor.  It  is 
very  productive,  and  so  far  as  is  known,  comes  true  when 
grown  from  seed. 

OTHER  GUAVAS 

Costa  Rican  guava  (Psidium  Friedrichsthalianum,  Ndz.). 

This  is  a  species  from  Central  America  which  recently  has 
been  introduced  into  California,  Florida,  and  a  few  other  regions. 
In  the  countries  where  it  is  native  it  is  found  occasionally  in 
gardens,  but  nowhere  is  it  cultivated  extensively.  Its  fruit 
is  highly  acid  and  is  valued  for  jelly-making. 

The  tree  is  erect,  about  25  feet  high,  with  slender  trunk  and 
branches.  The  young  branchlets  are  wiry,  quadrangular  and 
reddish  in  color.  The  leaves  are  elliptic,  oblong-elliptic,  or 
oval  in  form,  1J  to  3  inches  long,  acuminate  at  the  apex,  almost 
glossy  on  the  upper  surface  and  puberulent  on  the  lower.  The 
flowers  are  produced  singly  on  slender  peduncles;  they  are 
white,  fragrant,  and  about  an  inch  broad.  The  calyx  is  closed, 
but  splits  into  irregular  segments  when  the  flower  expands. 
The  petals,  five  in  number,  are  waxy  in  appearance.  The  fruit 
is  round  or  oval  in  form,  and  1  \  to  2i  inches  long,  sulfur-yellow 
in  color,  with  comparatively  few  seeds,  and  soft  white  flesh  of 
acid  flavor  with  none  of  the  musky  aroma  which  characterizes 
some  of  the  other  guavas. 

In  Costa  Rica  the  indigenous  name  for  this  fruit  is  cos.  A 
plant  which  has  been  introduced  into  the  United  States  from 
the  island  of  Trinidad  under  the  name  Psidium  laurifolium  is 
evidently  P.  Friedrichsthalianum.  When  planted  in  southern 
Florida  it  has  grown  well,  but  in  southern  California  it  has 
usually  been  killed  by  frost.  Plants  in  Florida  have  not  borne 
heavy  crops,  and  the  species  does  not  seem  to  possess  great 
promise  for  that  state. 


284     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

Guisaro  (Psidium  molle,  Bertol.). 

This  shrub  from  southern  Mexico  and  Central  America  is 
now  cultivated  in  a  few  gardens  in  southern  California  and 
southern  Florida.  The  acid  fruits,  smaller  than  those  of  the 
Costa  Rican  guava,  are  used  only  for  jelly-making. 

The  plant  is  of  slender  habit,  and  rarely  grows  more  than  10 
feet  high.  The  young  branchlets,  peduncles,  and  lower  surfaces 
of  the  leaves  are  reddish-velvety,  which  makes  it  easy  to  dis- 
tinguish the  species  from  P.  Guajava.  The  leaves  are  oblong- 
oval,  3  to  5  inches  long,  obtuse  at  the  apex,  and  rather  stiff. 
The  flowers,  of  which  three  are  commonly  borne  upon  each 
peduncle,  resemble  those  of  the  common  guava  (P.  Guajava). 
The  fruit  is  round,  about  1  inch  in  diameter,  yellowish  green 
to  pale  yellow  in  color,  with  whitish  flesh  containing  numerous 
small  hard  seeds.  The  flavor  is  acid  with  little  of  the  muski- 
ness  which  characterizes  some  other  guavas. 

This  is  the  chamach  of  northern  Guatemala,  often  called 
guayaba  acida  in  Spanish.  In  California  it  has  proved  to  be 
hardier  than  P.  Guajava  and  of  simple  culture.  In  Florida 
some  plants  have  not  borne  good  crops  while  others  have  been 
productive.  It  cannot  be  considered  a  valuable  species. 

Brazilian  guava  (Psidium  guineense,  Sw.). 

While  this  species  is  scarcely  known  horticulturally,  so  much 
confusion  has  existed  regarding  its  identity  that  it  seems 
desirable  to  include  it  here.  As  was  stated  on  a  former  page, 
the  guava  which  has  been  disseminated  in  Florida  under  this 
name  is  properly  a  horticultural  form  of  P.  Guajava;  the  true 
P.  guineense  may  have  been  planted  in  a  few  Florida  gardens, 
but  it  is  not  well  known  in  that  state.  It  is  grown  in  Cuba, 
although  not  widely,  so  far  as  is  known. 

The  shrub  is  of  slender  habit.  The  young  branchlets  are  com- 
pressed-cylindrical and  finely  hairy.  The  leaves  are  oblong- 


FRUITS  OF   THE  MYRTLE  FAMILY  285 

oval,  acute  or  obtuse,  3  to  5  inches  long,  with  the  lower  surfaces 
pubescent.  The  flowers,  of  which  one  to  three  are  borne  upon 
a  single  peduncle,  resemble  those  of  P.  Guajava.  The  fruit  is 
round  or  nearly  so,  1  to  li  inches  in  diameter,  greenish-yellow 
and  rather  hard  when  ripe,  with  whitish  flesh  containing  numer- 
ous small  seeds.  The  flavor  is  subacid,  and  not  so  musky  as 
that  of  P.  Guajava. 

This  guava  was  considered  by  Swartz,  who  first  described  it, 
to  be  indigenous  to  Africa,  but  more  recent  knowledge  shows 
this  to  be  improbable.  P.  Araqa,  Raddi,  is  a  synonym  of  this 
species.  In  Brazil  many  wild  guavas  are  known  by  the  indige- 
nous (Tupi)  name  ara$d,  a  fact  which  has  led  North  American 
nurserymen,  who  have  obtained  seeds  from  that  country,  to 
apply  the  name  P.  Ara<?d  erroneously  to  several  species  of 
Psidium.  P.  guineense  is  easily  distinguished  from  P.  Guajava 
by  its  compressed-cylindrical  branchlets ;  by  the  upper  surfaces 
of  the  leaves  not  having  the  venation  impressed  as  in  the  latter 
species,  and  by  the  number  of  the  lateral  veins,  which  are 
7  to  12  (commonly  8  or  9)  pairs,  in  place  of  12  to  18  (commonly 
14  to  16)  pairs. 

The  quality  of  the  fruit  is  not  sufficiently  good  to  make  the 
species  of  great  horticultural  value. 

Para  guava  (Britoa  acida,  Berg). 

Since  it  does  not  belong  to  the  genus  Psidium  this  fruit  is 
not  properly  entitled  to  be  called  a  guava,  but  its  similarity  to 
the  true  guavas  in  nearly  every  respect  makes  it  horticulturally 
permissible  to  include  it  with  them.  In  Brazil  it  is  known  as 
Araqa  do  Para.  It  is  indigenous  there,  and  is  occasionally  seen 
in  cultivation  in  several  parts  of  the  country.  It  has  been 
introduced  into  Florida,  where  it  has  been  distributed  under  the 
name  Psidium  Ara^d.  This  is  a  good  fruit,  worthy  of  wider  dis- 
semination in  tropical  countries.  Its  requirements  appear  to 
resemble  closely  those  of  the  common  guava,  P.  Guajava. 


286     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

The  plant  becomes  an  erect  shrub  or  small  tree  up  to  25  or 
30  feet  in  height,  with  slender  branches  and  quadrangular 
winged  branchlets.  The  leaves,  which  are  borne  upon  very 
short  petioles,  are  oblong-ovate  or  oblong-lanceolate  in  outline, 
2  to  4  inches  long,  acuminate,  glabrous,  and  somewhat  glossy. 
The  flowers,  which  are  solitary  in  the  leaf-axils,  are  borne  upon 
slender  quadrangular  peduncles.  The  calyx  is  closed,  splitting 
when  the  flower  expands,  forming  several  irregular  segments. 
The  petals  are  white  and  five  in  number.  The  fruit  is  oval  or 
roundish  in  form,  2  to  3  inches  long,  sulfur-yellow  in  color, 
with  soft  whitish  pulp  containing  a  few  seeds  of  larger  size  than 
those  of  the  true  guavas.  The  flavor  is  acid  but  pleasant, 
similar  to  that  of  the  guava  but  with  little  of  that  fruit's 
musky  aroma. 

THE  PITANGA  (Fig.  37) 
(Eugenia  uniflora,  L.) 

The  pitanga  is  the  best  of  the  Eugenias.  Outside  of  Brazil  it 
is  not  appreciated  as  it  deserves  to  be,  although  it  is  commonly 
grown  in  several  countries.  In  its  native  home  it  is  a  popular 
favorite.  Father  Tavares  observes:  "Surely  Brazil  does  not 
need  to  envy  Europe  her  cherry  trees,  bending  in  May  under 
the  weight  of  their  ruby  fruits.  Our  pitangas  surpass  them 
both  in  beauty  and  taste." 

In  the  United  States  the  pitanga  is  usually  seen  as  a  broad 
.compact  shrub,  but  in  Brazil  it  sometimes  becomes  a  small 
tree  up  to  25  feet  in  height.  The  foliage  is  deep  green  and 
somewhat  glossy,  the  new  growth  being  of  rich  wine-color. 
The  branchlets  are  thin  and  wiry,  the  leaves  subsessile,  ovate 
in  outline,  bluntly  acuminate  at  the  apex  and  rounded  at  the 
base,  1  to  2  inches  long,  and  glabrous.  When  crushed,  the 
leaves  emit  a  pungent  agreeable  odor,  for  which  reason  they 
are  sometimes  scattered  over  the  floors  of  Brazilian  houses. 


FRUITS  OF   THE  MYRTLE  FAMILY 


287 


The  fragrance  they  give  off  when  trampled  under  foot  is  doubly 
appreciated  as  being  thought  efficacious  in  driving  away  flies. 
The  white  slightly  fragrant  flowers  are  ^  inch  broad,  and  are 
borne  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  They  have  four  oblong  cupped 
petals,  with  a  prominent  cluster  of  stamens  in  the  center.  The 
fruit  is  oblate  in  form,  conspicuously  eight-ribbed,  up  to  one 


FIG.  37.  The  pitanga  (Eugenia  uniflora),  an  excellent  fruit  from  Brazil  which 
should  be  more  extensively  cultivated  in  tropical  and  subtropical  regions.  (X  f ) 

inch  in  diameter,  deep  crimson  in  color  when  fully  ripe,  and 
crowned  at  the  apex  with  the  persistent  calyx-lobes.  The 
flesh  is  soft,  juicy,  concolorous  with  the  skin,  and  of  aromatic 
sub-acid  flavor.  Usually  there  is  one  large  round  seed,  but 
sometimes  two  hemispherical  ones. 

The  pitanga  is  indigenous  in  Brazil,  extending  over  a  wide 
area.    Father  Tavares  1  reports  that  it  occurs  in  the  states 

1  Broteria,  No.  5,  1912. 


288     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Parana,  Santa  Catharina,  and  Rio  Grande  do 
Sul.  In  wild  form  it  usually  grows  along  the  banks  of  streams 
and  in  the  edge  of  the  forest,  but  it  is  also  common  in  cultiva- 
tion throughout  many  parts  of  Brazil.  At  Bahia  it  is  particu- 
larly abundant;  in  fact,  it  takes  an  important  place  among 
the  cultivated  fruits  of  the  region. 

From  its  native  home  it  was  carried  to  India  at  an  early  date, 
undoubtedly  by  the  Portuguese,  but  is  not  commonly  culti- 
vated in  that  country  at  the  present  time.  In  Ceylon,  accord- 
ing to  H.  F.  Macmillan,  it  thrives  at  elevations  of  1000  to  3000 
feet.  It  has  been  reported  from  southern  China,  where  it  was 
probably  introduced  by  the  Portuguese.  In  Hawaii  it  has  be- 
come a  common  garden-shrub.  L.  Trabut 1  believes  that  it 
would  rapidly  become  more  popular  in  Algeria  if  it  fruited  more 
abundantly,  since  it  has  been  found  quite  hardy  along  the 
coast.  It  has  also  proved  hardy  in  the  garden  of  A.  Robertson- 
Proschowsky  at  Nice,  on  the  Mediterranean  coast  of  France. 
In  Cuba  it  is  occasionally  seen  in  gardens.  In  the  United 
States  its  culture  is  limited  to  Florida  and  California.  Writ- 
ing in  1887,  P.  W.  Reasoner  said  :  "  The  tree  is  quite  frequently 
met  with  in  Orange  county  and  middle  Florida,  and  is  gaining 
in  favor  as  a  fruit-bearing  plant."  It  is  now  common  in 
gardens  along  the  lower  east  coast  of  Florida  (especially  in  the 
vicinity  of  Miami,  where  the  fruit  has  begun  to  appear  in  the 
markets)  and  on  the  west  coast  from  Fort  Myers  northward 
to  Tampa  Bay.  After  the  plants  have  attained  the  requisite 
age,  they  fruit  abundantly,  sometimes  producing  two  crops  a 
year. 

In  California  the  pitanga  has  not  become  so  common  as  in 
Florida,  owing  perhaps  to  the  fact  that  many  of  the  plants 
which  have  been  tested  in  various  parts  of  the  state  have  not 
fruited  well.  F.  Franceschi  reported  in  1895  that  it  was  grow- 
ing at  Montecito,  near  Santa  Barbara,  but  it  still  is  rare  in 
1  Revue  Horticole  de  1'Algerie,  p.  161,  1908. 


FRUITS  OF   THE  MYRTLE  FAMILY  289 

California  gardens.  If  it  is  found  that  the  plants,  after  attain- 
ing sufficient  age,  will  fruit  abundantly,  as  has  been  indicated 
by  the  behavior  of  specimens  at  Santa  Barbara  and  Orange, 
the  pitanga  should  certainly  be  planted  extensively  in  Cali- 
fornia. Up  to  four  or  five  years  of  age  it  does  not  produce 
much  fruit. 

The  local  names  of  this  fruit  are  several.  In  the  United 
States  it  is  known  as  Surinam-cherry,  and  less  commonly 
Cayenne-cherry  and  Florida-cherry.  The  name  pitanga  which 
is  used  throughout  Brazil  was  applied  to  this  fruit  by  the  Tupi 
Indians,  who  inhabited  Brazil  at  the  time  of  its  discovery  by 
Europeans.  According  to  Martius,  the  word  is  derived  from 
the  Tupi  piter,  to  drink,  and  anga,  odor  or  scent.  In  India  it  is 
called  Brazil-cherry,  and  in  Ceylon,  goraka-jambo.  The 
common  names  in  French  are  cerise  de  Cayenne  and  cerise 
carree.  In  Spanish  it  is  sometimes  called  cereza  de  Cayena. 
While  most  commonly  known  botanically  as  Eugenia  uniflora, 
L.,  several  synonyms  have  been  used  by  botanists :  E.  Michelii, 
Lam.,  is  one  which  is  frequently  seen.  Stenocalyx  Michelii, 
Berg,  was  used  by  Barbosa  Rodrigues  in  Brazil,  and  S.  bras- 
iliensis,  Berg,  by  M.  Pio  Correa.  A  plant  introduced  into 
California  as  E.  Pitanga,  Kiaersk.,  seems  to  be  of  the  uniflora 
species ;  the  true  E.  Pitanga  has  narrow  leaves  acute  at  the  base. 

The  uses  of  the  pitanga  are  numerous.  As  a  fresh  fruit  it  is 
delicious,  when  fully  ripe,  although  the  novice  sometimes 
finds  the  strongly  aromatic  flavor  slightly  disagreeable.  Before 
full  ripeness,  the  flavor  is  resinous  and  pungent.  As  the  fruits 
ripen  they  lose  their  green  color,  becoming  yellow,  then  orange, 
and  finally  scarlet  or  crimson.  They  should  never  be  eaten 
until  quite  mature.  Jelly  made  from  the  pitanga  possesses  a 
distinctive  flavor,  and  vies  in  popularity  with  guava  jelly 
among  the  inhabitants  of  Bahia,  Brazil.  Pitanga  sherbet  is  a 
favorite  refreshment  in  Bahia,  and  is  regularly  served  in  the 
cafes.  It  is  salmon-pink  in  color  and  delicious  in  flavor.  A 


290     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

liqueur  is  sometimes  prepared  from  the  fruit,  and  also  sirups 
and  wines  which  are  considered  by  the  Brazilians  to  have 
medicinal  value. 

Alice  R.  Thompson,  who  has  analyzed  the  fruit  in  Hawaii, 
finds  that  it  contains  :  Total  solids  9.30  per  cent,  ash  0.34,  acids 
1.44,  protein  1.01,  total  sugars  6.06,  fat  0.66,  and  fiber  0.34. 

In  Brazil  the  plant  is  commonly  used  to  form  hedges,  for 
which  purpose  it  is  admirably  adapted  since  it  withstands 
heavy  pruning,  and  is  evergreen,  with  foliage  of  rich  green 
color.  Plants  in  hedgerows,  however,  produce  little  fruit 
compared  with  those  which  are  allowed  to  develop  naturally. 
The  foliage  is  often  used  for  decorative  purposes,  in  the  same 
manner  as  holly  is  employed  in  northern  countries. 

The  pitanga  thrives  in  both  the  tropical  and  subtropical 
zones,  its  culture  extending  as  far  north  as  southern  California 
and  central  Florida  in  this  hemisphere,  and  the  Mediterranean 
region  in  Europe.  Mature  plants  withstand  temperatures  of 
27°  or  28°  above  zero  without  serious  injury.  They  are  more 
at  home  and  fruit  more  profusely  in  a  warm  moist  climate 
such  as  that  of  southern  Florida  than  in  a  semi-arid  region. 
On  the  dry  plains  of  northern  India,  on  the  Algerian  littoral, 
and  in  southern  California,  the  complaint  is  made  that  they 
do  not  bear  well,  although  in  Florida  and  in  the  moist  tropical 
regions  they  are  heavily  productive.  It  is  not  known,  however, 
just  what  is  the  limiting  factor. 

Father  Tavares  states  that  the  plant  prefers  a  light  sandy 
soil.  It  grows  very  well  in  southern  Florida  on  shallow  sand 
overlying  soft  limestone,  and  equally  well  in  California  on 
sandy  loam.  At  Bahia,  Brazil,  it  is  commonly  found  on  stiff 
clay.  It  can  thus  be  seen  that  it  is  very  adaptable  in  regard 
to  soil  and  apparently  does  not  object  to  a  large  amount  of 
lime,  as  is  indicated  by  its  growth  in  Florida. 

Unless  trained,  the  plants  usually  assume  a  bushy  compact 
form,  branching  close  to  the  ground.  They  may  be  planted 


FRUITS  OF  THE  MYRTLE   FAMILY  291 

in  the  open  when  they  are  a  foot  high,  and  require  no  unusual 
care.  In  California  they  have  proved  to  be  fairly  drought- 
resistant,  but  they  succeed  best  when  watered  liberally.  Their 
growth  is  not  rapid  under  any  circumstances,  and  several  years 
are  required  for  them  to  reach  fruiting  size.  In  the  tropics 
they  come  into  bearing  the  third  or  fourth  year. 

In  Florida  no  serious  enemies  of  the  plant  have  been  noted. 
E.  A.  Back  has  found  in  Bermuda,  however,  that  the  pitanga 
is  one  of  the  principal  hosts  of  the  Mediterranean  fruit-fly 
(Ceratitis  capitata  Wied.),  a  widely  distributed  pest  in  tropical 
regions. 

Seed  propagation  is  the  only  means  of  multiplication  of  the 
pitanga  in  common  use.  Whip-grafting  has  been  reported  as 
successful  but  has  not  been  employed  extensively.  Seedlings 
sometimes  spring  up  beneath  the  bushes  from  fruits  allowed 
to  fall  to  the  ground;  these  can  readily  be  transplanted  and 
saved.  Seeds  should  be  planted  while  fresh,  though  they  may 
be  kept  for  a  month  or  more  if  they  are  washed  immediately 
after  being  removed  from  the  fruit  and  then  dried.  They  may 
be  germinated  in  two-inch  pots,  or  may  be  planted  in  flats  and 
potted  off  when  they  are  2  to  3  inches  high.  Germination 
usually  takes  place  within  two  or  three  weeks.  Unlike  the 
rose-apple  (Eugenia  Jambos),  which  is  polyembryonic  and 
produces  four  or  five  plants  from  a  single  seed,  the  pitanga 
produces  only  one  plant  from  each  seed.  The  young  plants 
grow  slowly  and  do  not  require  frequent  shifting  into  larger 
pots.  Light  sandy  loam,  which  need  not  be  very  rich,  is  the 
best  potting  soil. 

In  Florida  and  the  West  Indies  the  main  crop  ripens  in 
early  spring.  The  plants  flower  in  February,  and  the  fruits 
develop  very  rapidly,  maturing  five  or  six  weeks  after  the 
flowers  have  fallen.  The  main  crop,  which  is  usually  a  heavy 
one,  ripens  at  one  time,  extending  over  a  period  of  about  two 
weeks ;  following  this  the  plants  sometimes  produce  scattering 


292     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

flowers,  and  begin  to  ripen  a  second  crop  about  a  month  after 
the  first,  extending  through  early  summer.  In  the  second  crop 
only  a  limited  number  of  fruits  ripen  at  one  time. 

In  Brazil  the  plants  bloom  in  September  and  ripen  their 
first  crop  in  October,  flowering  again  for  the  second  crop  in 
December  and  January.  Father  Tavares  says  that  the  fruits 
ripen  at  Bahia  within  three  weeks  from  the  appearance  of  the 
flowers.  In  California  the  season  is  late  summer. 

Under  favorable  conditions  the  pitanga  is  one  of  the  most 
prolific  of  fruits.  The  flowers,  which  are  very  fragrant,  are 
pollinated  by  bees  and  probably  by  other  insects.  The  plants 
must  be  watered  liberally  when  the  fruits  begin  to  color, 
otherwise  the  latter  will  remain  small. 

Since  the  pitanga  is  rarely  propagated  vegetatively,  no 
horticultural  varieties  have  been  established.  Nurserymen  in 
Florida  have  disseminated  a  seedling  race  under  the  name  of 
"black-fruited"  which  differs  from  the  common  form  in  being 
deeper  crimson  in  color  and  having  a  distinctive  flavor.  There 
is  considerable  variation  among  seedlings  of  the  common  type 
although  they  come  sufficiently  true  from  seed  for  this  method 
of  propagation  to  be  satisfactory.  The  size  of  the  seed  is  not 
always  the  same  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  fruit,  and  plants 
have  been  observed  in  Brazil  which  normally  produce  larger 
fruits  than  the  average.  Differences  in  productiveness  have 
also  been  noticed.  It  will  be  worth  while,  therefore,  to  perfect 
means  of  grafting  or  budding  this  species  so  that  the  best  seed- 
ling forms  can  be  propagated. 

THE  FEIJOA  (Plate  XIV,  Fig.  38) 

(Feijoa  Sellowiana,  Berg) 

Edouard  Andre,  one  of  the  greatest  French  horticulturists 
of  the  past  century,  took  home  with  him  when  he  returned  from 
a  voyage  to  South  America  in  1890  plants  of  Feijoa  Sellowiana, 


PLATE  XV.    A  fruiting  jaboticaba  tree. 


FRUITS  OF  THE  MYRTLE  FAMILY 


293 


a  fruit  at  that  time  unknown  save  as  a  wild  species  upon  the 
campos  of  southern  Brazil,  Uruguay,  Paraguay,  and  parts  of 
Argentina.  He  tried  them  in  his  garden  on  the  Riviera,  and 
they  succeeded  remarkably  well.  In  1898,  by  means  of  an 
article  in  the  Revue  Hor- 
ticole,  he  brought  the 
stranger  to  the  attention 
of  horticulturists,  and  it 
was  soon  planted  experi- 
mentally all  along  the 
Riviera.  About  1900  it 
was  introduced  into  Cali- 
fornia, where  its  cultiva- 
tion has  attracted  much 
attention  in  the  past  few 
years.  Its  prompt  dis- 
semination in  that  state 
was  due  largely  to  the 
efforts  of  F.  Franceschi 
of  Santa  Barbara. 

As  a  rule  wild  fruits, 
or  those  which  have  not 
been  improved  by  culti- 
vation, are  seedy  or  have 
scanty  flesh.  The  feijoa, 
taken  directly  from  the 
wild,  is  remarkable  for 
the  minute  size  of  its 
seeds,  its  abundance  of 
flesh,  and  its  delicious  perfumed  flavor. 

The  plant  reaches  an  ultimate  height  of  15  or  18  feet.  There 
are  several  types  in  cultivation;  one  may  be  compact,  low- 
growing,  while  another  will  be  tall,  open,  and  inclined  to  be 
straggling  in  habit.  The  leaves  are  similar  in  form  and  appear- 


FIG.  38.     Foliage,   flowers,  and  fruits  of  the 
feijoa  (Feijoa  SeUowiana).     (X  3) 


294     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

ance  to  those  of  the  olive,  but  usually  larger.  The  upper 
surface  is  glossy  green,  the  lower  silver-gray.  The  flowers  are 
1J  inches  broad  and  strikingly  handsome.  They  are  peculiar 
in  that  the  fleshy  petals  are  good  to  eat.  The  four  petals  are 
cupped,  white  outside  and  purplish  within;  and  the  long  stiff 
stamens  form  a  conspicuous  crimson  tuft  in  the  center.  The 
fruit  is  round,  oval,  or  oblong  in  shape,  1  to  3  inches  long,  dull 
green  in  color,  overspread  with  a  thick  whitish  bloom,  and 
sometimes  blushed  dull  red  on  one  side.  The  thin  skin  in- 
closes a  layer  of  granular  flesh,  whitish  and  about  ^  inch  thick, 
which  surrounds  a  quantity  of  translucent,  jelly-like  pulp  in 
which  twenty  to  thirty  minute  seeds  are  embedded.  The 
flavor  is  suggestive  of  pineapple  and  strawberry,  and  when 
properly  ripened  the  fruit  has  a  penetrating  and  delightful 
aroma. 

In  its  native  country  the  feijoa  is  scarcely  known  as  a  culti- 
vated plant.  It  is  a  wild  species,  called  guayabo  del  pais.  In 
southern  France  it  is  found  in  a  number  of  gardens,  but  it  is  not 
yet  commercially  cultivated  there,  although  the  desirability  of 
extending  its  culture  has  been  pointed  out  by  several  promi- 
nent horticulturists.  It  has  been  found  to  succeed  in  Algeria 
and  L.  Trabut  recommends  it  as  a  promising  new  fruit  for  that 
country.  Although  introduced  into  Cuba,  southern  Florida, 
and  several  other  tropical  regions,  it  has  not  been  successful 
in  any  of  them.  It  has  become  evident  that  the  plant  is  sub- 
tropical in  its  requirements,  and  that  it  cannot  be  expected  to 
produce  good  fruit  in  moist  tropical  regions.  In  the  dry  climate 
of  California  it  is  eminently  successful.  Numerous  small  com- 
mercial plantings  have  been  made  in  various  parts  of  the  state, 
and  the  fruit  has  begun  to  appear  regularly  in  the  markets. 

The  feijoa  may  be  eaten  as  a  fresh  fruit,  or  it  may  be  stewed, 
or  made  into  jam  or  jelly.  Different  opinions  have  been  ex- 
pressed regarding  its  value  as  a  fresh  fruit;  those  who  have 
eaten  perfectly  ripened  specimens  of  a  good  variety  have  in- 


FRUITS  OF   THE  MYRTLE  FAMILY  295 

variably  praised  it,  while  others  who  have  been  less  fortunate 
and  have  chanced  to  try  improperly  ripened  ones  or  those  of  an 
inferior  variety,  have  considered  that  the  feijoa  does  not 
merit  the  praise  which  has  been  bestowed  on  it.  An  analysis 
of  the  ripe  fruit  made  at  the  University  of  California  shows  it 
to  contain :  Water  84.88  per  cent,  ash  0.56,  protein  0.82,  fat 
0.24,  carbohydrates  4.24  (invert  sugar  2.66,  sucrose  1.58),  and 
crude  fiber  3.35. 

The  feijoa  is  hardier  than  many  other  subtropical  fruits. 
It  has  withstood  with  little  injury  temperatures  as  low  as  15° 
above  zero.  It  delights  in  a  dry  climate  but  one  free  from 
extremely  high  temperatures.  As  was  mentioned  above,  it 
has  not  proved  successful  in  moist  tropical  regions.  It  is  so 
drought-resistant  that  it  has  been  grown  successfully  at  Santa 
Barbara,  California,  with  no  artificial  irrigation;  yet  it  must 
be  irrigated  as  liberally  as  the  citrus  fruits  if  the  best  results 
are  to  be  obtained.  In  the  extremely  hot  desert  valleys  of 
California,  such  as  the  Coachella,  it  has  not  been  fully  success- 
ful. Edouard  Andre  pointed  out  that  the  native  home  of  the 
feijoa  is  the  region  of  Cocos  australis;  it  is  probable,  therefore, 
that  the  climate  to  which  the  plant  is  naturally  adapted  is  a 
mild  one,  free  from  extremes  of  temperature,  and  having  a 
yearly  rainfall  of  30  to  40  inches. 

A  sandy  loam,  rich  in  humus,  is  considered  to  be  the  ideal 
soil  for  the  feijoa.  In  California  it  has  been  grown  success- 
fully on  adobe,  red  clay,  and  sandy  loam.  French  horticultur- 
ists consider  that  the  plant  will  not  tolerate  much  lime.  It  is 
not  known  whether  its  failure  to  produce  good  fruit  in  Florida 
is  due  solely  to  unfavorable  climatic  conditions,  or  whether 
the  light  sandy  soils,  often  containing  much  lime,  are  partly 
responsible. 

The  plants  should  be  spaced  15  to  18  feet  apart  if  they  are 
not  to  crowd  one  another  when  mature.  While  young  they 
should  be  watered  liberally,  and  it  is  desirable  to  keep  a  heavy 


296     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

mulch  around  them  to  prevent  evaporation.  In  California 
it  is  customary  to  form  a  basin  around  each  plant;  after  the 
mulch  is  added  there  is  still  room  for  water,  of  which  one  or 
two  buckets  should  be  given  weekly  during  the  dry  season. 
After  the  plants  reach  fruiting  age,  they  should  be  irrigated 
every  two  or  three  weeks.  When  a  mulch  is  not  used,  the 
ground  should  be  cultivated  after  each  irrigation. 

The  amount  of  manure  which  can  be  used  advantageously 
has  not  been  determined.  It  has  been  the  general  practice 
in  California  to  give  the  young  plants  an  abundance  of  stable 
manure,  and  the  effect  of  this  seems  to  be  highly  beneficial. 
There  has  been  a  suspicion  that  large  amounts  of  manure,  if 
applied  to  bearing  plants,  would  decrease  the  production  of 
fruit,  but  the  evidence  is  not  convincing.  Lack  of  pollination 
is  probably  the  cause  of  many  crop  failures  which  are  attributed 
to  excessive  soil  fertilization. 

Plants  of  the  compact  low-growing  type  require  almost  no 
pruning.  Those  of  tall  straggling  form  often  need  cutting 
back  in  order  to  keep  the  branches  from  developing  to  such 
great  length  that  they  cannot  support  their  own  weight. 

Seedling  feijoas  do  not  reproduce  the  parent  variety  and  are 
less  satisfactory  than  plants  propagated  by  some  vegetative 
means.  Layering  is  used  in  France.  In  the  United  States 
many  plants  have  been  grown  from  cuttings,  and  not  a  few  by 
whip-grafting. 

When  seedlings  are  grown,  they  should  be  from  plants  which 
produce  good  fruits  in  abundance.  If  kept  dry,  feijoa  seeds 
will  retain  their  viability  a  year  or  more.  One  of  the  best 
mediums  for  germinating  them  is  a  mixture  of  silver-sand  and 
well-rotted  redwood  sawdust.  They  are  small  and  delicate, 
and  should  not  be  planted  in  heavy  soil.  A  light  sandy  loam, 
containing  much  humus,  is  satisfactory.  The  seeds  should 
be  sown  in  pans  or  flats,  covering  to  the  depth  of  J  inch.  Ger- 
mination usually  takes  place  within  three  weeks.  A  glass- 


FRUITS  OF  THE  MYRTLE  FAMILY  297 

house  is  not  necessary,  but  the  flats  containing  the  seeds  should 
be  kept  in  a  frame  with  lath  or  slat  covering  to  provide  half- 
shade.  As  soon  as  the  young  plants  have  made  their  second 
leaves  they  should  be  pricked  off  into  two-inch  pots;  after 
attaining  a  height  of  4  inches  they  should  be  shifted  into  three- 
inch  pots,  from  which  they  can  later  be  transplanted  into  the 
open  ground. 

Layering  is  somewhat  tedious,  but  with  the  feijoa  is  more 
successful  than  any  other  vegetative  means  of  propagation. 
Those  branches  which  are  nearest  the  ground  are  bent  down 
and  covered  with  soil  for  the  space  of  3  to  6  inches.  They 
require  no  care  except  keeping  the  soil  moist.  They  will  root  in 
about  six  months,  after  which  time  they  may  be  severed  from 
the  parent  and  set  in  their  permanent  positions. 

Cuttings  are  successfully  rooted  under  glass,  and  occasionally 
in  the  slat-house  or  lath-house.  They  should  be  of  young 
wood  from  the  ends  of  branches,  and  about  4  inches  in  length. 
Inserted  in  clear  sand  over  bottom-heat,  they  will  strike  roots 
in  a  month  or  two ;  without  bottom-heat  they  root  very  slowly. 
It  is  sometimes  advised  to  keep  them  covered  with  a  bell-jar. 
In  Florida  good  results  have  been  obtained  by  using  as  cuttings 
the  young  sprouts  which  appear  around  the  base  of  the  plant ; 
these  are  removed  with  a  heel  when  still  quite  small,  and  are 
planted  in  sand.  Although  they  are  slow  to  form  roots,  the 
percentage  of  loss  is  lower  than  when  branch-tips  are  used. 

Whip-grafting  has  given  good  results  in  some  instances, 
and  is  probably  one  of  the  best  methods  of  propagating  the 
feijoa.  The  stock-plants  should  be  of  the  diameter  of  a 
lead-pencil,  the  cions  slightly  smaller  and  of  firm  wood. 
Grafting  has  been  successful  both  under  glass  and  in  the  open 
ground. 

Many  feijoa  plants  which  have  been  grown  in  California 
have  borne  little  or  no  fruit.  It  has  commonly  been  thought 
that  wrong  cultural  practices  were  the  cause  of  this,  but  the 


298     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

investigations  of  K.  A.  Ryerson  and  the  author  indicate  that 
self-sterility  may  be  to  blame  in  many  instances. 

In  its  native  home,  the  feijoa  is  believed  to  be  pollinated  by 
certain  birds  that  visit  the  flowers  in  order  to  eat  the  fleshy 
sweet  petals.  The  stamens  and  style  project  to  a  considerable 
height  in  the  center  of  the  flower;  they  brush  against  the 
breast  of  the  visiting  bird  and  pollen-grains  adhere  to  its 
feathers.  When  it  visits  the  next  plant  some  of  these  pollen- 
grains  are  likely  to  come  in  contact  with  the  stigmas  of  other 
flowers  and  remain  upon  them.  Cross-pollination  is  thus 
effected. 

In  the  United  States  the  birds  which  do  this  work  in  the 
habitat  of  the  feijoa  are  not  present;  consequently  the  plant 
must  depend  on  other  pollinating  agencies.  In  some  instances 
feijoa  plants  are  self-fertile,  and  abundant  fruits  are  produced 
when  the  flowers  are  self -pollinated.  In  other  instances,  it 
has  been  found  that  they  are  self-sterile,  and  can  develop  fruits 
only  when  pollen  is  brought  from  a  different  plant.  The  pollen 
of  self-sterile  feijoas  has  been  found  potent,  when  applied  to 
flowers  of  other  individuals. 

To  avoid  the  dissemination  of  self-sterile  feijoas,  varieties 
known  to  be  self-fertile  should  be  propagated  by  vegetative 
means.  Seedlings,  even  if  grown  from  a  self-fertile  variety, 
may  nevertheless  be  self -sterile. 

Grafted  or  layered  plants  begin  bearing  two  or  three  years 
after  they  are  planted.  Seedlings  may  not  bear  until  the 
fourth  or  fifth  year.  Self-fertile  varieties  often  yield  regularly 
and  abundantly.  The  ripening  season  in  California  is  October 
to  December.  The  fruits  fall  to  the  ground  when  mature, 
and  must  be  laid  in  a  cool  place  until  they  are  in  condition 
for  eating,  —  which  can  be  known  by  their  becoming  slightly 
soft,  and  by  their  perfumed  aroma.  They  spoil  quickly  in  a 
hot,  humid  atmosphere,  but  if  stored  in  a  cool  place  they  may 
be  kept  a  month  in  good  condition.  They  can  be  shipped  long 


FRUITS  OF   THE  MYRTLE  FAMILY  299 

distances  without  difficulty.  Feijoas  are  usually  packed  for 
market  in  fruit-baskets  holding  about  two  quarts. 

To  be  appreciated,  this  fruit  must  be  eaten  at  the  proper 
degree  of  ripeness.  M.  Viviand-Morel  says,  "  Everyone  knows 
that  the  finest  pears  are  only  turnips  if  eaten  a  trifle  too  soon 
or  a  trifle  too  late."  The  observation  is  applicable  also  to  the 
feijoa. 

The  plant  is  attacked  by  few  insect  pests.  The  black  scale 
(Saissetia  olece  Bernard)  is  the  principal  enemy  which  has  been 
noted.  No  fungous  parasites  have  yet  become  troublesome. 

In  the  Pomona  College  Journal  of  Economic  Botany  (Feb- 
ruary, 1912),  the  writer  has  described  three  varieties  of  the 
feijoa,  the  Andre,  the  Besson,  and  the  Hehre.  The  Andre, 
described  below,  is  the  only  one  which  has  been  widely  dis- 
seminated. Other  varieties  which  have  originated  in  Cali- 
fornia as  seedlings  have  been  propagated  to  a  limited  extent, 
but  they  are  little  known  as  yet. 

Andre.  —  Form  oblong  to  oval ;  size  medium,  length  2  to  2£  inches, 
breadth  1|  inches;  base  rounded,  the  stem  inserted  without  depres- 
sion ;  apex  rounded,  the  calyx-segments  cupped ;  surface  roughened, 
light  green  in  color,  overspread  with  a  thick  whitish  bloom ;  flesh 
whitish,  juicy,  of  spicy,  aromatic  flavor  suggesting  the  pineapple  and 
the  strawberry ;  seeds  few,  small.  Season  November  and  December 
on  the  French  Riviera  and  in  southern  California. 

This  variety  is  of  unknown  origin.  It  was  brought  to  France 
from  Uruguay  in  1890  by  Edouard  Andre,  and  was  planted  in  his 
garden  at  Golfe-Juan,  on  the  Riviera.  Layered  plants  were  later 
sent  from  France  to  California.  It  is  self-fertile,  and  fruits  profusely. 
The  shrub  is  sometimes  erect  and  open  in  habit,  and  in  other  instances 
low,  compact,  and  broad. 

THE  JABOTICABA  (Plate  XV) 
(Myrciaria  spp.) 

In  southern  Brazil  there  are  a  number  of  indigenous  fruits 
of  genuine  merit.  The  jaboticaba  is  one  of  the  best,  but  like 


300     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

many  of  the  others  it  has  until  recently  received  little  attention 
outside  its  native  home. 

Among  the  fruit-trees  cultivated  in  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  its 
vicinity,  the  jaboticaba  is  one  of  the  commonest  and  certainly 
the  one  which  first  attracts  the  attention  of  the  newcomer.  Its 
habit  of  producing  the  fruit  directly  upon  the  trunk  and  larger 
limbs,  together  with  the  unusual  beauty  of  its  symmetrical  and 
umbrageous  head  of  pale  green  foliage,  makes  this  a  peculiarly 
striking  tree.  The  fruit  is  popular  and  highly  esteemed  by  all 
classes  of  Brazilians,  and  occupies  an  important  position  in  the 
markets. 

When  grown  on  rich  soil,  the  tree  reaches  a  height  of  35  or  40 
feet.  The  leaves  are  ovate-elliptic  to  lanceolate,  acute  to 
acuminate  at  the  apex,  usually  glabrous,  and  vary  from  f  inch 
to  3  inches  in  length.  The  flowers  are  small,  white,  with  four 
petals  and  a  prominent  cluster  of  stamens.  They  are  produced 
singly  or  in  clusters  on  the  bark  of  the  trunk  and  limbs.  The 
fruit  is  round,  i  to  li  inches  in  diameter,  maroon-purple  in 
color,  and  crowned  with  a  small  disk  at  the  apex.  The  skin  is 
thicker  and  tougher  than  that  of  a  grape.  The  translucent 
juicy  pulp,  whitish  or  tinged  with  rose,  is  of  agreeable  vinous 
flavor.  The  seeds,  one  to  four  in  number,  are  oval  to  round  in 
outline  and  compressed  laterally. 

The  jaboticaba  is  usually  listed  as  Myrciaria  cauliflora,  Berg. 
There  are  several  closely  related  species,  however,  whose  fruits 
are  all  known  under  the  same  common  name.  M.  trunciflora, 
Berg,  and  M .  jaboticaba,  Berg,  probably  furnish  many  of  the 
fruits  sold  as  jaboticabas  in  the  markets  of  Rio  de  Janeiro. 
Father  Tavares  considers  that  the  cultivated  forms  are  in  some 
instances  the  result  of  hybridization. 

As  a  wild  plant  the  jaboticaba  is  limited  to  southern  Brazil, 
from  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  to  Minas  Geraes.  It  is  cultivated 
in  the  same  area,  as  well  as  in  a  few  other  parts  of  Brazil.  It 
has  been  introduced  into  the  United  States  and  a  few  other 


FRUITS  OF  THE  MYRTLE  FAMILY  301 

countries,  but  has  not  yet  become  established  in  any  of 
them. 

The  uses  of  the  jaboticaba  are  several.  As  a  fresh  fruit  it  is 
as  popular  in  southern  Brazil  as  the  grape  is  in  the  eastern 
United  States.  A  wine  can  be  made  from  it,  and  also  an  ex- 
cellent jelly. 

While  the  tree  is  said  to  succeed  on  any  soil,  it  prefers  one 
that  is  rich  and  deep.  Its  growth  is  slow,  six  to  eight  years 
being  required  for  it  to  come  into  bearing.  In  Brazilian  orchards 
this  tree  is  nearly  always  planted  too  closely;  the  distance 
apart  should  be  30  feet  at  least.  Though  rarely  grown  in  those 
parts  of  Brazil  which  are  subject  to  severe  frosts,  the  jaboticaba 
has  shown  in  the  United  States  that  it  resists  comparatively 
low  temperatures.  At  Miami,  Florida,  it  has  passed  success- 
fully through  a  freeze  of  26°  above  zero.  So  far  as  can  be  judged 
from  the  limited  experience  which  has  been  gained,  the  soils  of 
southern  Florida  are  not  well  adapted  to  it.  Those  of  southern 
California  are  more  suitable,  but  the  climate  has  proved  to  be 
too  cold  in  all  but  the  most  protected  spots  in  that  state.  The 
jaboticaba  appears  to  demand  for  full  success  a  deep  rich  soil 
and  a  moist,  equable,  rather  cool  climate  with  temperatures 
preferably  never  below  the  freezing-point. 

Little  attention  is  given  in  Brazil  to  the  culture  of  this  tree. 
Father  Tavares  says  that  the  fazendeiros  (planters)  of  Sao 
Paulo,  who  irrigate  their  trees  at  times  when  there  is  a  scarcity  of 
rain,  succeed  in  having  ripe  jaboticabas  throughout  the  year. 
Without  irrigation,  fruit  is  produced  usually  during  the  warmest 
months  of  the  year.  When  heavily  laden  with  fruit,  the  tree 
is  a  curious  sight.  Not  only  is  the  trunk  covered  with  clusters 
of  glistening  jaboticabas,  but  the  fruiting  extends  to  the  limbs 
and  out  to  the  tips  of  the  smallest  branches. 

Propagation  is  usually  by  seed.  It  is  said,  however,  that 
young  plants  can  be  inarched  successfully  :  if  so,  choice  varieties 
could  well  be  propagated  in  this  manner.  Other  methods  of 


302     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

propagation  will  doubtless  be  developed  when  the  jaboticaba 
becomes  more  widely  grown. 

The  Brazilians  cultivate  as  named  varieties  a  number  of 
forms  which  must  either  be  distinct  species  or  seedling  races. 
The  name  jaboticaba,  without  any  qualifying  word,  is  considered 
to  be  applied  properly  only  to  Myrciaria  cauliflora.  The 
closely  allied  M.  jaboticaba  is  known  as  jaboticaba  de  Sao  Paulo, 
jaboticaba  de  cabinho,  and  jaboticaba  do  matto.  According  to 
Father  Tavares,  M .  tenella,  Berg,  is  known  as  jaboticaba  macia. 
The  fruits  of  the  various  species  are  very  much  alike.  The 
form  coroa,  which  is  one  of  the  commonest  named  "varieties" 
recognized  in  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  Minas  Geraes,  can  probably 
be  referred  to  M .  cauliflora.  The  form  murta  has  small  leaves ; 
it  is,  perhaps,  another  form  of  the  same  species.  The  variety 
branca  (white)  is  listed  by  nurserymen  in  Rio  de  Janeiro,  also 
roxa  (red) ;  both  are  said  to  be  distinct  from  the  ordinary  jaboti- 
caba in  color. 

OTHER  MYRTACEOTJS  FRUITS 

Grumichama  (Eugenia  Dombeyi,  Skeels)  (Fig.  39). 

This  is  a  better  fruit  than  several  other  species  of  Eugenia 
which  are  much  more  widely  grown.  It  is  found  both  wild  and 
cultivated  in  southern  Brazil,  particularly  in  the  states  of 
Parana  and  Santa  Catharina.  Elsewhere,  with  the  exception 
of  Hawaii,  it  is  scarcely  known. 

The  -tree,  which  grows  to  the  same  size  as  the  orange,  is 
shapely  and  attractive  in  appearance,  with  ovate-elliptic,  glossy, 
deep  green  leaves  2  to  3  inches  long.  The  small  white  flowers 
are  followed  by  pendent  fruits,  round  or  slightly  flattened,  the 
size  of  a  cherry,  and  deep  crimson  in  color.  The  persistent 
green  sepals  which  crown  the  apex  are  a  distinguishing  char- 
acteristic. The  skin  is  thin  and  delicate ;  the  flesh  soft,  melting, 
pf  a  mild  subacid  flavor  suggesting  that  of  a  Bigarreau  cherry. 


FRUITS  OF  THE  MYRTLE   FAMILY 


303 


The  seeds  are  round  or  hemispherical  when  one  or  two  in  num- 
ber; sometimes  there  are  three  or  more,  in  which  case  the 
size  is  reduced  and  they  are  angular. 

The  rapidity  with  which  the  fruits  develop  is  surprising; 
within  a  month  from  the  time  of  flowering  they  have  reached 
maturity  and  are  falling  to  the  ground.  Father  Tavares  states 
that  all  the  trees  do  not  ripen  their  crops  at  the  same  time,  some 
blooming  later  than  others  and  thus  extending  the  fruiting 
season  from  November  to  February  (in  Brazil)  .  Three  varieties 
are  distinguished  by  him, 
one  with  dark  red  flesh, 
another  with  vermilion, 
and  the  third  with  white. 
All  three  are  said  to  be 
equally  good  in  quality. 
The  fruit  is  usually  eaten 
fresh,  but  may  also  be 
used  to  make  jams  and 
preserves. 

The     grumichama 
(sometimes    grumixama, 

to  Conform  to  old  PortU- 
_xU  u    \    u 

guese  orthography)  has 
recently  been  planted  in 
California  and  Florida.  In  the  latter  state  it  has  withstood  a 
temperature  of  26°  without  injury,  which  indicates  that  it  is 
subtropical,  rather  than  strictly  tropical,  in  character.  It  pre- 
fers a  deep  sandy  loam,  but  succeeds  in  Florida  on  shallow  sandy 
soils.  Vaughan  MacCaughey  says  :  "In  the  Hawaiian  islands 
it  is  usually  about  20  feet  high.  It  requires  considerable  mois- 
ture for  its  best  development,  as  do  all  the  Eugenias  in  our  flora  ; 
the  largest  crops  are  borne  by  plants  at  the  lower  levels,  up  to 
300  feet  .  .  .  flowering  and  fruiting  continues  from  July  until 
December,  the  main  crop  coming  in  the  fall.  .  .  .  The  first 


FIG.  39.     The  grumichama  (Eugenia  Dom- 
a  little-known  fruit  from  southeastern 

(x  f) 


304     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

plants  in  Hawaii  were  probably  introduced  by  the  Spaniard, 
Don  Francisco  de  Paula  Marin,  who  came  to  the  islands  in 
1791."  The  grurnichama  is  sometimes  listed  as  Eugenia 
brasiliensis,  Lam.  Stenocalyx  brasiliensis,  Berg,  is  another 
synonym. 

Seedlings  are  said  to  commence  fruiting  when  four  or  five 
years  old.  They  grow  rather  slowly.  No  one  appears  to 
have  budded  or  grafted  the  species  as  yet.  For  its  value 
as  an  ornamental  plant  as  well  as  for  its  pleasant  fruit,  the 
grumichama  deserves  cultivation  throughout  the  tropics  and 
subtropics. 

Jambolan  (Eugenia  jambolana,  Lam.) . 

This  species,  whose  native  home  is  in  the  East  Indies,  is  of 
little  value  in  comparison  with  several  of  its  congeners.  It  is  a 
small  tree,  with  large,  oblong,  apiculate,  glossy  leaves,  white 
flowers,  and  oval,  purplish  red  fruits  commonly  \  inch  in  length. 
It  is  said  that  forms  with  large  fruits  of  good  quality  are  known 
in  the  Orient,  but  those  which  have  been  grown  in  the  United 
States  are  scarcely  worth  cultivating.  The  plant  is  slightly 
less  hardy  than  the  rose-apple  (see  below),  but  can  be  grown 
successfully  in  southern  Florida  and  in  protected  situations  in 
southern  California.  It  is  said  to  succeed  in  Algiers,  where  it  is 
known  by  the  French  name  jamelongue.  In  English  it  is  some- 
times called  Java-plum,  while  in  India  it  is  commonly  known 
as  jambu  and  jaman.  According  to  Watt's  "  Dictionary  of  the 
Economic  Products  of  India,'7  it  is  "A  small  evergreen  tree  met 
with  throughout  India  and  Burma,  ascending  the  hills  to  about 
6000  feet.  It  is  chiefly  found  along  river  beds  and  is  specially 
cultivated  for  its  fruit  in  gardens  (topes)  and  in  avenues.  There 
are  several  varieties  that  yield  much  better  flavored  fruit  than 
others,  but  as  a  rule  it  is  astringent,  and  only  serviceable  when 
cooked  in  tarts  and  puddings." 

The  propagation  of  the  plant  is  usually  by  seed.     Its  botanical 


FRUITS  OF  THE  MYRTLE  FAMILY  305 

synonymy  is  rather  extensive;  Syzygium  jambolana,  DC., 
Syzygium  Cumini,  Skeels,  and  Eugenia  Cumini,  Druce,  are 
names  under  which  it  is  sometimes  listed. 

Rose-apple  (Eugenia  Jambos,  L.)  (Plate  XVI). 

As  an  ornamental  tree,  the  rose-apple  is  of  value  for  all  tropical 
and  subtropical  regions.  As  a  fruit  it  is  beautiful  and  interest- 
ing, but  is  not  much  used  except  for  making  preserves. 

The  tree  grows  to  25  or  30  feet  in  height,  and  is  shapely  and 
attractive  in  appearance.  The  leaves  are  oblong-lanceolate, 
acuminate,  5  to  8  inches  long,  thick  and  glossy,  with  the  new 
growth  wine-colored.  The  flowers  are  produced  upon  the  young 
branchlets  in  short  terminal  racemes.  They  are  greenish  white 
in  color  and  have  a  conspicuous  tuft  of  long  stamens  which 
almost  hide  the  other  floral  parts  from  view.  The  calyx-tube 
is  turbinate,  and  the  corolla  composed  of  four  obovate  concave 
petals.  The  fruit  is  round  or  oval,  1  to  2  inches  in  length, 
and  crowned  at  the  apex  with  the  calyx-segments.  In  color 
it  is  whitish  green  to  apricot-yellow ;  it  is  perfumed  with  the 
odor  of  the  rose,  and  is  attractive  in  appearance.  The  flesh 
is  crisp,  juicy,  and  sweet.  The  single,  round  seed  (or  some- 
times two  hemispherical  ones)  is  loose  in  the  large  hollow 
seed-cavity. 

The  rose-apple  is  indigenous  in  the  East  Indies,  whence 
it  has  been  carried  to  all  parts  of  the  tropics.  It  has  become 
naturalized  in  the  West  Indies,  in  Hawaii,  and  in  other  regions. 
In  India,  where  it  is  very  abundant,  it  is  usually  known  as 
gulab-jaman  (rose  jaman).  Yule  and  Burnell  state  that  the 
Sanskrit  name  jambu  is  applied  in  the  Malay  language,  with 
distinguishing  adjectives,  to  several  species  of  Eugenia.  Jambo 
and  yambo  are  sometimes  used  in  English  for  the  rose-apple. 
In  French  it  is  called  pomme-rose,  in  Spanish  poma-rosa.  Bo- 
tanically  it  is  sometimes  listed  as  Jambosa  mdgaris,  DC., 
sometimes  as  Caryophyllus  Jambos,  Stokes. 


306     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

The  tree  is  hardy  in  southern  California  and  throughout  the 
southern  and  central  parts  of  Florida.  It  succeeds  equally  well 
in  warm,  moist,  tropical  regions  and  in  the  cool  and  dry  sub- 
tropics.  In  Florida  it  is  esteemed  as  an  ornamental  plant.  The 
fresh  fruit  is  fragrant  and  attractive,  but  owing  to  its  peculiar 
character  it  is  not  pleasant  to  eat  unless  in  small  quantities; 
yet  as  a  preserve  or  crystallized  it  is  delicious.  On  account  of  its 
beauty  it  is  often  used  for  table  decoration.  Its  enticing  per- 
fume, strikingly  similar  to  that  of  rose-water,  makes  it  unique 
among  fruits. 

According  to  an  analysis  made  in  Hawaii  by  Alice  R.  Thomp- 
son, the  ripe  fruit  contains :  Total  solids  15.85  per  cent,  ash 
0.29,  acids  0.03,  protein  0.79,  total  sugars  11.73,  fat  0.18,  and 
fiber  0.98  per  cent. 

The  plant  thrives  on  soils  of  diverse  types.  While  a  rich 
loam  perhaps  best  suits  it,  the  shallow  sandy  soils  of  south- 
eastern Florida  have  proved  altogether  satisfactory.  It  is  of 
slow  growth,  and  comes  into  bearing  when  four  or  five  years  old. 
When  in  bloom  it  is  highly  ornamental  as  it  is  also  when  the 
yellow  fruits  are  ripe.  It  does  not  bear  heavily,  but  fruiting 
extends  over  a  long  season. 

Propagation  of  the  rose-apple  is  usually  by  seed.  Like  the 
mango  it  is  peculiar  in  that  its  seeds  are  polyembryonic ;  thus 
a  single  seed  may  give  rise  to  seven  or  eight  plants.  P.  J. 
Wester  has  found  that  the  species  lends  itself  to  bud-propaga- 
tion. The  method  is  the  same  as  that  used  with  the  avocado 
and  mango.  Wester  says :  "  Use  greenish  to  brownish  and 
roughish,  well-matured  budwood ;  cut  the  buds  an  inch  and  a 
quarter  long.  The  age  of  the  stock  at  the  point  of  insertion 
is  unimportant."  Large-fruited  varieties,  or  those  otherwise 
desirable,  may  be  propagated  by  this  means. 

No  named  varieties  of  this  very  interesting  fruit  have  been 
disseminated. 


PLATE  XVI.     Flowers  and  fruits  of  the  rose-apple  (Eugenia  Jambos), 


FRUITS  OF  THE  MYRTLE  FAMILY 


307 


Pera  do  campo  (Eugenia  Klotzschiana,  Berg)  (Fig.  40). 

This  is  a  rare  eugenia  from  the  campos  or  rolling  plains  of 
central  Brazil  (Minas  Geraes),  which  has  recently  been  intro- 
duced into  the  United  States.  It  is  slender  in  habit  and  grows 
not  more  than  4  or  5  feet  high.  The  leaves  are  lanceolate,  3  to 
5  inches  long,  hard  and  brittle  in  texture  and  silvery  pubescent 
on  the  lower  surface. 
The  pear-shaped,  downy, 
golden-yellow  fruits,  2  to 
4  inches  in  length,  ripen 
in  Brazil  from  November 
to  January.  They  have 
soft,  juicy,  acid  flesh,  and 
are  highly  aromatic  in 
odor  and  flavor.  The 
seeds,  one  to  four  in 
number,  are  irregularly 
oval  in  form  and  small 
in  size. 

Pitomba    (Eugenia 
luschnathiana,  Berg). 

This  is  a  fruit-tree 
found  wild  and  culti- 
vated in  the  state  of 
Bahia,  Brazil.  It  attains  a  height  of  25  to  30  feet,  and  is  of 
handsome  appearance.  The  leaves  are  lanceolate,  3  inches 
long,  glossy  and  deep  green  on  the  upper  surface,  light  green 
below.  The  fruits  are  broadly  obovate  in  form,  1  inch  long, 
with  the  apex  crowned  by  four  or  five  green  sepals  \  inch 
long.  The  color  is  bright  orange-yellow.  The  skin  is  thin, 
and  the  flesh  soft,  melting,  juicy,  with  an  acid,  highly  aromatic 
flavor.  The  seeds,  commonly  one  but  sometimes  as  many  as 


The  per*  do  c*mpo  (Eugenia  Klotz- 
schiand).     (X  f) 


308     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 


four,  are  rounded  or  angular  according  to  number,  and  at- 
tached to  one  side  of  the  seed  cavity.  Propagation  is  usu- 
ally by  seed.  The  botanical  name  Phyllocalyx  Luschnathianus, 
Berg,  is  sometimes  used. 

Ohio,  (Eugenia  malaccensis,  L.)  (Fig.  41). 

This  species  is  a  native  of  the  Malayan  Archipelago,  whence 
it  has  been  introduced  into  other  tropical  regions.     It  is  now 

the  most  important  eugenia  in 
the  Hawaiian  flora.  Vaughan 
MacCaughey l  says  of  it : 
"This  beautiful  tree  was  intro- 
duced by  the  primitive  Ha- 
waiians  and  is  now  abundant 
in  the  humid  valleys  and  ra- 
vines on  all  the  islands.  It  is 
distinctly  a  tree  of  the  lower 
forest  zone,  where  it  forms  pure 
stands,  some  of  which,  on  the 
broad  valley  floors,  cover  areas- 
of  several  hundred  acres." 

The  tree  sometimes  reaches 
60  feet  in  height.     The  leaves 
are   elliptic-oblong   to   oblong- 
obovate,  acute,  6  or  7  inches  in 
FIG.  41.    The  ohia  (Eugenia  malac-    length,  thick,  glossy,  and  dark 

censis),  a  Malayan  fruit  little  known 
in  the  American  tropics.  The  tree  is 
handsome,  but  the  fruit  is  not  of  very 


good  quality.     (X  about 


green  in  color.  To  quote  again 
MacCaughey  :  "  The  flowers  are 
showy  clusters  of  long,  spread- 
ing, bright  red  stamens,  that  contrast  charmingly  with  the  rich 
foliage.  During  the  flowering  season,  in  early  summer,  the 
shady  interior  of  the  tree  seems  to  be  filled  with  a  delicate 
scarlet  haze."  The  fruits  are  oval  to  obovate  in  form,  2  to  3 
1  Torreya,  Dec.,  1916. 


FRUITS  OF  THE  MYRTLE  FAMILY  309 

inches  long,  and  white  to  crimson  in  color.  The  skin  is  thin, 
the  flesh  crisp,  "apple-like,"  white,  and  juicy,  with  refreshing 
subacid  flavor.  In  Hawaii  this  species  is  often  called  mountain- 
apple.  In  the  Orient  it  is  known  as  Malay-apple,  and  in  French, 
jamelac.  In  the  British  West  Indies,  where  it  was  introduced 
from  Tahiti  in  1793,  it  is  often  termed  Otaheite-apple.  Accord- 
ing to  W.  Harris,  it  is  now  common  in  the  wet  warm  districts 
of  Jamaica.  Botanically  it  is  sometimes  listed  as  Jambosa 
malaccensis,  DC.,  and  also  as  Caryophyllus  malaccensis, 
Stokes. 

The  fruit  is  not  especially  esteemed.  It  is  somewhat  pithy 
in  texture  and  its  flavor  is  not  rich.  Alice  R.  Thompson  finds 
it  to  contain :  Total  solids  8.61  per  cent,  ash  0.13,  acids  .06, 
protein  0.21,  total  sugars  6.88,  fat  0.03,  and  fiber  0.56. 

The  ohia  is  tropical  in  its  requirements  and  cannot  be  grown 
in  regions  subject  to  frost.  So  far  as  is  known,  it  has  never 
been  brought  to  fruiting  age  either  in  California  or  Florida. 
It  is  probable,  however,  that  few  attempts  have  been  made  to 
grow  it  in  either  state,  and  that  it  might  succeed  in  the  extreme 
southern  part  of  Florida.  In  Ceylon  it  is  said  by  H.  F.  Mac- 
millan  to  thrive  at  elevations  up  to  2000  feet.  It  is  grown 
successfully  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil. 

It  is  propagated  by  seed,  and  also,  according  to  Thomas 
Firminger,  by  layers.  It  cannot  be  recommended,  however, 
for  extensive  cultivation  as  a  fruit-producing  tree.  As  an 
ornamental  plant  for  the  tropics  it  is  distinctly  valuable.  In 
Hawaii  a  variety  with  white  flowers  and  fruits  is  found. 

Uvalha  (Eugenia  Uvalha,  Cambess.). 

This  shrub  or  small  tree  is  found  both  wild  and  cultivated  in 
southern  Brazil.  The  leaves  are  oblong,  obtuse,  and  aromatic 
when  crushed ;  the  fruits  are  round  or  oblate  in  form,  1  inch 
in  diameter,  yellow  or  orange  in  color,  and  crowned  at  the  apex 
with  the  remnants  of  the  calyx.  The  skin  is  thin,  the  flesh  soft 


310     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

and  juicy,  with  an  intense  and  agreeable  aroma.  The  acid 
flavor  causes  the  fruit  to  be  used  principally  for  making  refresh- 
ing drinks.  It  is  little-known  outside  of  Brazil. 

Cabelluda  (Eugenia  tomentosa,  Cambess.). 

This  myrtaceous  fruit  is  found  both  indigenous  and  cultivated 
in  the  vicinity  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil.  When  well  grown, 
the  tree  is  handsome  and  of  value  as  an  ornamental  plant. 
It  reaches  a  height  of  15  to  25  feet.  The  leaves  are  oblong- 
lanceolate,  2  to  4  inches  long,  bright  green  and  tomentose  above, 
dull  green  and  tomentose  below.  The  fruits,  which  ripen  in 
October  and  November  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  resemble  large 
gooseberries  in  appearance.  They  are  yellow  when  fully  ripe 
and  nearly  1  inch  in  diameter.  The  skin  is  firm  and  tough, 
downy  externally;  the  flesh  is  juicy  and  of  pleasant  subacid 
flavor.  The  one  or  two  large  seeds  are  surrounded  by  coarse 
short  fibers.  The  cabelluda,  sometimes  listed  as  Phyllocalyx 
tomentosus,  Berg,  is  scarcely  known  outside  of  Brazil.  It  has 
been  introduced  recently  into  the  United  States,  where  it  should 
succeed  in  California  and  Florida.  It  is  not  a  fruit  of  much 
merit. 

Guabiroba  (Abbevillea  Fenzliana,  Berg). 

This  is  another  small  tree  found  both  wild  and  cultivated  in 
southern  Brazil,  especially  in  the  vicinity  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  It 
grows  to  30  or  40  feet  in  height,  and  has  foliage  which  resembles 
that  of  some  of  the  European  oaks.  The  leaves  are  elliptic- 
ovate  in  form,  about  2  inches  long,  with  the  venation  depressed 
above  and  salient  below.  The  flowers  resemble  those  of  the 
guava.  The  fruits  are  oblate  in  form,  nearly  1  inch  in  diameter, 
orange-yellow  in  color,  and  crowned  with  the  large  disk  and 
persistent  calyx-segments.  The  surface  is  somewhat  wrinkled, 
and  the  thin  skin  surrounds  a  soft,  yellow  flesh  in  which  numer- 
ous seeds  are  embedded.  The  flavor  is  similar  to  that  of  the 


FRUITS  OF   THE  MYRTLE  FAMILY  311 

guava  but  less  pleasant.  This  plant,  sometimes  listed  as 
Campomanesia  Fenzliana,  Glaziou,  has  been  introduced  into 
Florida,  where  it  grows  well  and  has  withstood  a  temperature  of 
26°  above  zero  without  injury.  The  fruit  is  used  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  guava,  but  is  not  of  great  value. 

Downy  myrtle  (Rhodomyrtus  tomentosa,  Wight). 

This  myrtle  is  a  small,  handsome  shrub,  valuable  as  an  orna- 
mental plant  as  well  as  for  its  fruit.  The  leaves  are  elliptic  or 
obovate,  obtuse,  1  to  2J  inches  long.  The  rose-pink  flowers 
are  followed  by  round  fruits  somewhat  resembling  a  large  black 
currant  in  size  and  character.  The  downy  myrtle  (sometimes 
called  hill-gooseberry)  is  probably  best  known  in  southern 
India,  where  it  occurs  commonly  in  the  mountains.  It  is  said 
by  H.  F.  Macmillan  to  succeed  in  Ceylon  only  at  high  elevations. 
It  is  grown  also  in  southern  China,  and  to  a  very  limited  extent 
in  Florida  and  California.  It  withstands  ^Jeveral  degrees  of 
frost.  The  fruits  are  said  to  make  excellent  pies,  and  they 
may  also  be  eaten  out  of  hand.  Sir  Joseph*  Hooker  says  that 
they  are  used  in  India  to  prepare  a  jam  called  theonti.  The 
plant  is  not  particular  regarding  soil,  and  is  Readily  propagated 
by  means  of  seeds,  which  should  be  sown  in  flats  of  light  soil  and 
covered  to  a  depth  of  -|-  inch.  The  botanical  name  Myrtus 
tomentosa,  Aiton,  is  sometimes  given  it.  Everything  considered, 
the  downy  myrtle  should  repay  wider  cultivation  than  it  receives 
at  present. 


CHAPTER  X 
THE  LITCHI  AND  ITS  RELATIVES 

THE  Sapindaceae  or  Soapberry  family  comprises  a  number  of 
fruits  prized  in  the  tropics,  which  may  be  brought  together 
in  one  chapter.  In  temperate  climates  the  family  yields  no 
important  edible  fruits.  Some  botanists  place  the  maples  and 
buckeyes  in  this  family,  but  these  plants  are  now  commonly 
separated  in  other  closely  related  families. 

THE  LITCHI  (Plate  XVII,  Fig.  42) 
(Litchi  chinensis,  Sonn.) 

While  living  in  exile  at  Canton,  the  poet  Su  Tung-po  declared 
that  litchis  would  reconcile  one  to  eternal  banishment.  Yet 
he  did  not  allow  his  enthusiasm  to  draw  him  into  gastronomic 
indiscretions,  for  he  limited  himself  to  a  modest  three  hundred 
a  day,  while  other  men  (so  he  says)  did  not  stop  short  of  a 
thousand. 

Chang  Chow-ling,  an  illustrious  statesman  of  the  eighth 
century  of  our  era,  composed  a  poem  on  the  litchi  in  which  he 
praised  it  as  the  most  luscious  of  all  fruits.  Modern  Chinese 
critics  fully  concur  in  this  opinion.  Neither  the  orange  nor  the 
peach,  two  of  the  finest  fruits  of  southern  China,  is  held  to 
equal  it  in  quality. 

Nor  is  the  litchi  one  of  those  rare  and  delicate  fruits  known 
only  to  the  favored  few.  In  southern  Asia,  where  its  cultivation 
dates  back  at  least  two  thousand  years,  it  is  grown  extensively 
and  millions  are  familiar  with  it.  That  it  should  still  be  un- 

312 


THE   LITCHI   AND  ITS   RELATIVES 


313 


known  in  most  parts  of  the  western  tropics  is  probably  due 
to  the  perishable  nature  of  the  seeds.  Before  the  days  of  steam 
navigation,  it  was  difficult  to  transport  them  successfully  from 
one  continent  to  another. 

"An  orchard  of  litchis,"  wrote  the  eminent  E.  Bonavia  of 
India,  "say  of  a  few  hundred  trees,  and  with  ordinary  care, 
would  give  a  handsome  and  almost  certain  annual  return  for 
not  improbably  a  hundred  years." 
While  it  has  been  considered  that 
the  litchi  is  somewhat  exacting  in 
its  cultural  requirements,  it  can  be 
grown  successfully  in  many  parts 
of  the  tropics  and  subtro^pics.  Now 
that  it  has  been  established  in  trop- 
ical America,  there  is  no  reason  why 
it  should  not  there  become  one  of 
the  common  fruits,  nor  why  fresh 
litchis  should  not  be  found  on  fruit- 
stands  of  northern  cities  at  least  as 
abundantly  as  are  the  dried  ones  at 

present. 

It  is  in  the  form  of  dried  litchis, 

"litchi   nuts,"    that    North    Ameri-     reported,  but  in  the  best-known 

pans    arp    iisiiallv    aprmaintpH   with 
squall  L 

this  fruit.  The  Chinese  who  live  in 
the  United  States  import  them  in  large  quantities,  and  are 
particularly  prone  to  indulging  in  them  at  the  time  of  their 
New  Year  celebrations.  But  the  dried  litchi  resembles  the 
fresh  one  even  less  than  the  dried  apple  of  the  grocery  store 
resembles  a  Gravenstein  just  picked  from  the  tree.  To  appre- 
ciate its  excellence,  one  must  taste  the  fresh  litchi  ;  although  a 
fairly  true  estimate  of  it  may  be  acquired  from  the  canned  or 
preserved  product,  which  much  resembles  preserved  Muscat 
grapes  in  flavor. 


FIG.  42.     Fruits  of  a  good  va- 


sorts  the  seed  is  about  the  size 
of  the  Qne  here  shown     (X  i} 


314     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

Judging  by  the  experience  of  the  past  few  years,  it  should 
be  possible  to  produce  litchis  commercially  in  southwestern 
Florida  (the  Fort  Myers  region),  where  there  is  relative  freedom 
from  frost  and  where  the  soils  are  deep  and  moist.  It  is  doubt- 
ful whether  there  are  any  localities  in  southern  California 
adapted  to  commercial  litchi  culture,  but  trees  have  been 
grown  at  Santa  Barbara  and  in  the  foothill  region  near  Los 
Angeles  (Monrovia,  Glendora).  While  the  dry  climate  and 
cool  winter  weather  of  California  are  unfavorable,  it  seems  prob- 
able that  litchis  may  be  grown  on  a  small  scale  in  this  state, 
if  planted  in  sheltered  situations  and  given  protection  from 
frost  for  the  first  few  years. 

Because  of  its  value  as  an  ornamental  tree,  the  litchi  is  rec- 
ommended for  planting  in  parks  and  gardens.  It  grows  to  an 
ultimate  height  of  35  or  40  feet  (less  in  some  regions),  and  forms 
a  broad  round-topped  crown  well  supplied  with  glossy  light 
green  foliage.  The  leaves  are  compound,  with  two  to  four 
pairs  of  elliptic-oblong  to  lanceolate,  sharply  acute,  glabrous 
leaflets  2  to  3  inches  long.  The  flowers,  which  are  small  and 
unattractive,  are  borne  in  terminal  panicles  sometimes  a  foot 
in  length.  They  are  said  to  appear  in  northern  India  in  Feb- 
ruary and  in  China  during  April.  The  fruits,  which  are  produced 
in  loose  clusters  of  two  or  three  to  twenty  or  even  more,  have 
been  likened  to  strawberries  in  appearance.  In  shape  they  are 
oval  to  ovate,  in  diameter  1J  inches  in  the  better  varieties,  and 
in  color  deep  rose  when  fully  ripe,  changing  to  dull  brown  as  the 
fruit  dries.  The  outer  covering  is  hard  and  brittle,  rough  on 
the  surface  and  divided  into  small  scale-like  areas.  The  seed  is 
small,  shriveled,  and  not  viable  in  some  of  the  grafted  varieties ; 
in  seedlings  it  is  as  large  as  a  good-sized  castor-bean,  and  glossy 
dark  brown  in  color.  Surrounding  it  and  separating  from  it 
readily  is  the  flesh  (technically  aril),  which  is  white,  translucent, 
firm,  and  juicy.  The  flavor  is  subacid,  suggestive  of  the  Bigar- 
reau  cherry  or  (according  to  some)  the  Muscat  grape. 


THE  LITCHI   AND  ITS   RELATIVES  315 

Regarding  the  origin  and  early  history  of  the  fruit  Alphonse 
DeCandolle  says  :  "  Chinese  authors  living  at  Pekin  only  knew 
the  litchi  late  in  the  third  century  of  our  era.  Its  introduction 
into  Bengal  took  place  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
Every  one  admits  that  the  species  is  a  native  of  the  south  of 
China,  and,  Blume  adds,  of  Cochin-China  and  the  Philippine 
Islands,  but  it  does  not  seem  that  any  botanist  has  found  it  in  a 
truly  wild  state.  This  is  probably  because  the  southern  part 
of  China  towards  Siam  has  been  little  visited.  In  Cochin- 
China  and  in  Burma  and  at  Chittagong  the  litchi  is  only  culti- 
vated." 

Macgowan  1  recounts  that  litchis  were  first  sent  as  tribute  to 
the  emperor  Kao  Tsu  about  200  B.C.  These  were  dried  fruits, 
however ;  later  fresh  ones  were  forwarded  by  relays  of  men,  and 
one  is  happy  to  learn  that  though  the  cost  in  human  life  was 
frightful  they  reached  the  emperor  in  good  condition.  The 
Emperor  Wu  Ti  (140-87  B.C.)  made  several  attempts  to 
bring  trees  from  Annam  and  plant  them  in  his  garden  at  Chang- 
an,  but  he  was  not  successful  in  raising  them. 

According  to  Walter  T.  Swingle,  the  first  published  work 
devoted  exclusively  to  fruit-culture  was  written  by  a  Chinese 
scholar  in  1056  A.D.  on  the  varieties  of  the  litchi. 

The  principal  provinces  of  China  in  which  litchis  are  grown 
are  Fukien,  Kwantung,  and  Szechwan.  In  Kwangtung  Prov- 
ince alone  the  annual  crop  is  said  to  be  twenty  million  to  thirty 
million  pounds,  worth  $1,000,000  to  $1,500,000.  The  region 
around  Canton  is  considered  the  most  favorable  part  of  China 
for  litchi  culture.  North  of  Foochow  the  tree  is  not  successful. 

While  litchis  are  by  no  means  so  extensively  grown  in  India 
as  they  are  in  southern  China,  there  are  several  districts  in 
which  they  are  produced  commercially.  The  most  important 
are  said  to  be  in  Bengal ;  about  Muzaffarpur  (in  Bihar) ;  and 
at  Saharanpur  (United  Provinces  of  Agra  and  Oudh).  E. 

1  Journal  of  the  Agri-Horticultural  Society  of  India,  1884,  p.  195. 


316     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

Bonavia  says  :  "  The  tree  does  admirably  in  Lucknow,  and  should 
do  as  well  all  over  the  northwestern  provinces,  but  it  flourishes 
best,  I  believe,  in  Bengal.  Who  knows  what  untold  litchi 
wealth  there  may  be  in  the  fine  black  soil  of  the  central  prov- 
inces, so  centrally  situated  for  fruit  trade?" 

In  Cochin-China,  in  Madagascar,  and  in  a  few  other  countries 
of  the  East,  the  tree  is  cultivated  on  a  limited  scale.  In  Hawaii, 
where  it  is  believed  to  have  been  introduced  about  1873,  it  has 
succeeded  remarkably  well,  and  much  attention  has  lately  been 
given  to  its  commercial  cultivation,  without,  however,  any 
large  orchards  having  been  established  as  yet. 

According  to  William  Harris,  it  was  introduced  into  Jamaica 
in  1775,  but  it  is  still  rare  in  that  island.  A  tree  at  Santa  Bar- 
bara, California,  which  produced  a  few  fruits  in  1914,  was  the 
first  to  come  into  bearing  in  the  United  States.  While  the 
litchi  is  believed  to  have  been  planted  in  Florida  as  early  as 
1886,  it  was  not  until  1916  that  the  first  fruits  were  produced 
in  that  state.  These  were  from  plants  introduced  from  China 
in  1906.  A  few  trees  have  borne  in  Cuba,  Brazil,  and  other 
parts  of  tropical  America. 

The  common  name  of  this  fruit  is  variously  spelled,  —  litchi, 
lichee,  lychee,  leechee,  lichi,  laichi,  and  so  on.  Yule  and  Burnell 
state  that  the  pronunciation  in  northern  China  is  lee-chee, 
while  in  the  southern  part  of  the  country  it  is  ly-chee.  Since 
the  form  litchi  has  been  fixed  as  a  part  of  the  botanical  name  of 
the  species,  and  since  it  is  employed  extensively  as  the  common 
name,  it  may  be  well  to  retain  it  in  preference  to  others.  The 
pronunciation  ly-chee,  which  is  used  in  the  region  where  the 
fruit  is  grown,  is  generally  preferred  to  leechee.  Botanically 
the  plant  is  Litchi  chinensis,  Sonn.  Nephelium Litchi,  Cambess., 
is  a  synonym. 

While  the  litchi  is  probably  best  as  a  fresh  fruit,  Frank  N. 
Meyer  says  that  it  is  considered  by  some  to  be  more  delicious 
when  preserved  (canned)  than  when  fresh;  and  he  adds :  "No 


THE  LITCHI   AND  ITS   RELATIVES  317 

good  dinner,  even  in  northern  China  (where  the  litchi  is  not 
grown)  is  really  complete  without  some  of  these  delicious  little 
fruits."  The  dried  litchi  tastes  something  like  the  raisin. 
Consul  P.  R.  Josselyn  of  Canton  writes :  "There  are  two  ways 
of  drying  litchis,  —  by  sun  and  by  fire.  The  sun  dried  litchi 
has  a  finer  flavor  and  commands  a  better  price  than  the  fire 
dried  fruit."  Only  two  or  three  varieties  are  considered  suit- 
able for  drying.  Regarding  the  preserving  industry,  Josselyn 
remarks :  "  It  is  estimated  by  dealers  that  the  annual  export 
of  tinned  litchis  from  Canton  is  about  3000  boxes,  or  192,000 
pounds.  Each  box  of  preserved  litchis  contains  48  tins,  weigh- 
ing 1  catty  each.  Each  tin  contains  about  28  litchis.  There 
are  five  large  dealers  in  Canton  who  make  a  business  of  pre- 
serving these  litchis.  In  addition  to  the  preserved  litchis 
exported  from  Canton  large  quantities  of  the  fresh  fruit  are 
shipped  from  the  producing  districts  surrounding  Canton  to 
Hongkong  and  are  there  preserved  in  tin." 

An  analysis  of  the  fresh  fruit,  made  in  Hawaii  by  Alice  R. 
Thompson,  shows  it  to  contain  :  Total  solids  20.92  percent,  ash 

0.54,  acids  1.16,  protein  1.15,  and  total  sugars  15.3. 

• 
Cultivation. 

In  general  it  must  be  considered  that  the  litchi  is  tropical 
in  its  requirements.  It  likes  a  moist  atmosphere,  abundant 
rainfall,  and  freedom  from  frosts.  It  can  be  grown  in  sub- 
tropical regions,  however,  where  the  climate  is  moist  or  if  abun- 
dant water  is  supplied,  and  where  severe  frosts  are  not  commonly 
experienced. 

Young  plants  will  not  withstand  temperatures  below  the 
freezing  point.  In  regions  subject  to  frost  they  should,  there- 
fore, be  given  careful  protection  during  the  winter.  The 
mature  tree  is  not  seriously  injured  by  several  degrees  of  frost, 
but  at  Miami,  Florida,  plants  six  feet  high  were  killed  by  a 
temperature  of  26°  above  zero. 


318     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

Rev.  William  N.  Brewster  of  Hinghua,  Fukien,  China,  de- 
scribing the  conditions  under  which  the  trees  are  cultivated 
in  that  country,  says :  "  They  will  not  flourish  north  of  the 
frost  line.  They  are  particularly  sensitive  to  cold  when  young. 
It  is  the  custom  here  to  wrap  the  trees  with  straw  to  protect 
them  from  the  cold.  After  the  trees  are  five  or  six  years  old 
they  are  less  sensitive,  and  it  takes  quite  a  heavy  frost  to  injure 
them." 

Regarding  soil,  G.  W.  Groff  of  the  Canton  Christian  College 
writes  :  "  The  litchi  seems  to  do  best  on  dykes  of  low  land  where 
its  roots  can  always  secure  all  the  water  needed,  and  where 
they  are  even  subjected  to  periods  of  immersion.  In  some  places 
they  grow  on  high  land  but  not  nearly  so  successfully."  The 
Rev.  Mr.  Brewster  says  on  this  subject:  "The  trees  flourish 
in  a  soft,  moist  black  soil ;  alluvium  seems  best.  Near  by  or 
on  the  bank  of  a  stream  or  irrigation  canal  is  best,  though  this 
is  not  essential.  Where  there  is  no  stream  the  trees  should  be 
watered  so  frequently  that  the  ground  below  the  surface  is 
always  moist ;  about  twice  a  week  when  rain  is  not  abundant 
should  be  enough.  After  the  young  trees  are  well  started, 
about  two  or  three  years  old,  the  irrigations  may  be  less  fre- 
quent." 

These  authorities  are  quoted  to  show  the  conditions  under 
which  the  litchi  is  grown  in  China.  Experience  in  other 
countries  has  shown  the  tree  to  be  reasonably  adaptable  in 
regard  to  both  climate  and  soil.  While  it  prefers  a  humid  atmos- 
phere, it  has  succeeded  in  the  relatively  dry  climate  of  Santa 
Barbara,  California,  without  more  frequent  irrigation  than  other 
fruit-trees.  On  the  plains  of  northern  India,  where  the  atmos- 
phere is  comparatively  dry  and  the  annual  rainfall  about  40 
inches,  it  is  cultivated  on  a  commercial  scale.  Although  the 
best  soil  may  be  a  rich  alluvial  loam,  it  has  done  well  in  Florida 
on  light  sandy  loam.  It  has  not  been  successful,  however, 
on  the  rocky  lands  of  southeastern  Florida.  Whether  these 


THE  LITCHI   AND  ITS  RELATIVES  319 

lands  are  too  dry,  or  whether  the  litchi  dislikes  the  large  amounts 
of  lime  which  they  contain,  cannot  be  stated  definitely.  In 
undertaking  to  grow  this  tree,  four  desiderata  should  be  kept 
in  mind  :  first,  freedom  from  injurious  frosts ;  second,  a  humid 
atmosphere ;  third,  a  deep  loamy  soil ;  and  fourth,  an  abundance 
of  soil-moisture.  When  one  or  more  of  these  is  naturally  lack- 
ing, efforts  must  be  made  to  correct  the  deficiency  in  so  far  as 
possible.  Frost-injury  can  be  lessened  by  protecting  the 
trees;  low  atmospheric  humidity  is  not  badly  prejudicial  if 
the  soil  is  abundantly  moist;  sandy  soils  may  be  made  more 
suitable  by  adding  humus-forming  material;  and  a  soil 
naturally  dry  may  be  irrigated  regularly  and  frequently. 

In  regions  where  the  litchi  tree  grows  to  large  size,  it  is  not 
advisable  to  space  the  plants  closer  than  30  feet  apart,  and  40 
feet  is  considered  better.  In  Florida  they  can  be  set  more 
closely  without  harm ;  25  feet  will  probably  be  a  suitable  dis- 
tance. In  localities  where  frost  protection  must  be  given,  it 
may  be  desirable  to  plant  the  trees  under  sheds,  and  in  this  case 
economy  will  demand  that  they  be  crowded  as  much  as  possible. 
At  Oneco,  near  Bradentown,  Florida,  E.  N.  Reasoner  has  fruited 
the  litchi  very  successfully  in  a  region  usually  considered  too 
cold  for  it,  by  growing  it  in  a  shed  covered  during  the  winter 
with  thin  muslin  to  keep  off  frost,  and  opened  in  the  summer. 
If  it  is  commercially  profitable  to  erect  sheds  over  pineapple- 
fields,  —  and  it  has  proved  so  in  certain  parts  of  Florida,  — 
there  seems  to  be  no  reason  why  it  should  not  be  much  more 
profitable  to  grow  the  litchi  in  this  way,  in  regions  where  pro- 
tection from  frost  is  necessary. 

The  trees  should  be  planted  in  holes  previously  prepared  by 
excavating  to  a  depth  of  several  feet,  and  incorporating  with  the 
soil  a  liberal  amount  of  leaf-mold,  well-rotted  manure,  rich  loam, 
or  other  material  which  will  increase  the  amount  of  humus. 
This  is,  of  course,  more  important  where  the  soil  is  light  and 
sandy,  as  it  is  in  many  parts  of  Florida,  than  where  the  humus- 


320     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

content  is  high.  Basins  may  be  formed  around  the  trees  to 
hold  water. 

Bonavia  writes :  "  As  the  trees  grow,  their  thalas  or  water- 
saucers  should  be  enlarged  and  on  no  account  should  the  fallen 
leaves  be  removed  from  them,  but  allowed  to  decay  there  and 
form  a  surface  laye.r  of  leaf-mold.  .  .  .  Every  hot  weather 
thin  layers  of  about  two  or  three  inches  of  any  other  dried 
leaves  should  be  spread  over  the  thalas,  and  allowed  to  decay 
there,  to  be  renewed  when  they  crumple  up  and  decay."  This 
corresponds  to  the  mulching  generally  practiced  in  western 
countries.  It  has  been  remarked  by  several  writers  that  the 
litchi  is  a  shallow-rooted  tree,  with  most  of  its  feeding  roots 
close  to  the  surface.  If  this  really  is  the  case,  mulching  will 
probably  be  an  essential  practice,  and  deep  tilling  of  the  soil 
will  have  to  be  avoided. 

Rev.  Mr.  Brewster  says :  "  Fertilization  is  important. 
Guano  is  probably  as  good  as  anything.  The  Chinese  use 
night  soil.  They  dig  a  shallow  trench  around  the  tree  at  the 
end  of  the  roots  and  fill  it  with  liquid  manure  of  some  sort. 
This  is  done  about  once  in  three  months."  J.  E.  Higgins,1  in 
his  bulletin  "The  Litchi  in  Hawaii,"  notes  that  "Some 
growers  prefer  to  put  the  manure  on  as  a  top  dressing  and 
cover  it  with  a  heavy  mulch  because  of  the  tendency  of  the 
litchi  to  form  surface  roots." 

The  tree  requires  little  pruning.  Higgins  says  :  "  The  custom- 
ary manner  of  gathering  the  fruit,  by  breaking  with  it  branches 
10  to  12  inches  long,  provides  in  itself  a  form  of  pruning  which 
some  growers  insist  is  necessary  for  the  continued  productivity 
of  the  tree."  But  a  thorough  study  has  yet  to  be  made  of  this 
subject  in  the  Occident. 

Hand-in-hand  with  the  development  of  litchi-growing  in 
the  American  tropics  and  subtropics  will  come  the  development 
of  new  cultural  methods.  The  information  at  present  available 
.  44,  Hawaii  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  1917. 


THE   LITCHI   AND  ITS   RELATIVES  321 

is  meager,  and  too  apt  to  be  characterized  by  the  generalities 
of  the  Hindu  horticulturist :  "  Too  much  manure  should  not 
be  applied  to  newly  planted  or  small  trees.  As  the  tree 
flourishes,  more  and  more  manure  should  be  applied,"  writes 
one  of  them,  in  a  treatise  on  litchi-culture.  The  literature  of 
tropical  pomology  is  burdened  with  information  of  this  nature, 
and  the  need  is  for  more  specific  data  based  on  experience. 

Propagation. 

Propagation  of  the  litchi  is  commonly  effected  by  two  means  : 
seed,  and  air-layering  (known  in  India  as  guti).  Higgins  writes 
on  this  subject : 

"  As  seeds  do  not  reproduce  the  variety  from  which  they  have  been 
taken,  and  as  the  seedlings  are  of  rather  slow  growth  and  require 
many  years  to  come  into  bearing,  it  has  for  many  years  been  the  custom 
in  China,  the  land  of  the  litchi,  to  propagate  the  best  varieties  by  layer- 
ing or  by  air-layering,  a  process  which  has  come  to  be  known  as 
4  Chinese  layering'  and  is  applied  to  many  kinds  of  plants.  In  air- 
layering,  a  branch  is  surrounded  with  soil  until  roots  have  formed,  after 
which  it  is  removed,  and  established  as  a  new  tree.  In  applying  the 
method  to  the  litchi,  a  branch  from  f  to  1£  inches  in  diameter  is 
wounded  by  the  complete  removal  of  a  ring  of  bark  just  below  a  bud, 
where  it  is  desired  to  have  the  roots  start.  The  cut  is  usually  sur- 
rounded by  soil  held  in  place  by  a  heavy  wrapping  of  burlap  or  similar 
material,  although  sometimes  a  box  is  elevated  into  the  tree  for  this 
purpose.  Several  ingenious  devices  have  been  made  to  supply  the  soil 
with  constant  moisture.  Sometimes  a  can  with  a  very  small  opening 
in  the  bottom  is  suspended  above  the  soil  and  filled  with  water  which 
passes  out  drop  by  drop  into  the  soil.  Again,  sometimes  the  water  is 
conducted,  from  a  can  or  other  vessel  placed  above  the  soil,  by  means 
of  a  loosely  woven  rope,  one  end  of  which  is  placed  in  the  water,  the 
other  on  the  soil,  the  water  passing  over  by  capillarity. 

"  Air-layering  is  commenced  at  about  the  beginning  of  the  season  of 
most  active  growth,  and  several  months  are  required  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a  root  system  sufficient  to  support  an  independent  tree. 
When  a  good  ball  of  roots  has  formed,  the  branch  is  cut  off  below 
the  soil,  or  the  box,  after  which  it  is  generally  placed  in  a  larger  box 
or  tub  to  become  more  firmly  established  before  being  set  out  per- 
manently. At  first  it  is  well  to  provide  some  shade  and  protection 
from  the  wind,  and  it  is  often  necessary  to  cut  back  the  top  of  the 
branch  severely,  so  as  to  secure  a  proper  proportion  of  stem  to  root." 

Y 


322     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

Regarding  methods  of  propagation  employed  in  China, 
Groff  says :  "  I  have  never  seen  a  budded  or  grafted  litchi 
tree,  and  I  understand  it  is  never  done.  Litchi  trees  are  either 
inarched  or  layered,  the  latter  being  the  most  common  and 
most  successful.  If  inarched  it  is  on  litchi  stock.  The  common 
practice  in  inarching  is  to  use  the  Loh  Mai  Chi  variety  for  cion 
and  the  San  Chi  for  stock."  The  method  of  layering  mentioned 
by  Groff  is  that  described  above.  Inarching  is  treated  in  this 
volume  in  connection  with  the  propagation  of  the  mango.  It  is 
a  tedious  process  of  grafting  little  used  in  America,  but  more 
certain  than  budding  and  other  methods. 

Litchi  seeds  are  short-lived.  If  removed  from  the  fruit 
and  dried,  they  retain  their  viability  not  more  than  four  or  five 
days.  If  they  remain  in  the  fruit,  however,  and  the  latter  is 
not  allowed  to  dry,  they  can  be  kept  for  three  or  four  weeks. 
In  this  way  they  can  be  shipped  to  great  distances,  or  they  may 
be  removed  from  the  fruit,  packed  in  moist  sphagnum  moss,  and 
allowed  to  germinate  en  route.  Some  of  the  choice  grafted 
varieties,  such  as  the  Bedana  of  India,  do  not  produce  viable 
seeds. 

Higgins  recommends  that  the  seeds  be  sown  in  pots  sunk  in 
well-drained  soil.  They  should  be  placed  hortizontally  about  i 
inch  below  the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  after  they  have  germinated 
the  seedlings  should  be  kept  in  half-shade. 

Attention  has  recently  been  given  to  the  possibility  of  grafting 
or  budding  the  litchi  on  the  longan  (Euphoria  Longana)  and 
other  relatives  (see  below).  Higgins  has  successfully  crown- 
grafted  the  litchi  on  large  longan  stocks.  He  says,  "  Repeated 
experiments  with  this  method  have  shown  that  there  is  no 
great  difficulty  in  securing  a  union  of  the  litchi  with  the  longan. 
A  noteworthy  influence  of  the  stock  on  the  cion  should  be 
mentioned  here.  The  growth  produced  is  very  much  more 
rapid  than  that  of  the  litchi  on  its  own  roots,  and  in  some  cases 
the  character  of  the  foliage  seems  to  undergo  a  change."  Addi- 


THE  LITCHI   AND   ITS  RELATIVES  323 

tional  experience  is  required,  however,  to  show  the  practical 
value  of  the  longan  and  other  stocks.  The  field  is  an  interesting 
one,  and  important  results  are  likely  to  be  secured. 

Yield  and  season. 

Seedling  litchis  have  been  known  to  bear  fruit  at  five  years 
of  age.  It  is  commonly  held  that  they  should  bear  when  seven 
to  nine  years  old.  In  some  instances,  however,  trees  twenty 
years  old  have  failed  to  produce  fruit.  Higgins  remarks,  "  Wide 
variability  in  the  age  of  coming  into  bearing  has  been  noted 
with  seedlings  of  other  tropical  fruits,  especially  the  avocado, 
but  the  litchi  appears  most  extreme  in  this  respect." 

Layered  plants  tend  to  bear  when  very  young.  Sometimes 
they  will  flower  a  year  after  planting,  and  mature  a  few  fruits 
when  two  years  old,  but  three  to  five  years  is  the  age  at  which 
they  normally  come  into  bearing. 

The  litchi  is  famed  as  a  long-lived  tree.  An  early  Chinese 
account  (not  necessarily  to  be  credited)  mentions  one  which 
was  cut  down  when  it  was  800  years  old.  Bonavia  considered 
that  litchis  should  remain  in  profitable  bearing  for  a  century 
at  least.  Mature  trees  have  been  found  in  Hawaii  to  yield  200 
to  300  pounds  of  fruit  yearly,  and  crops  of  1000  pounds  have 
been  reported.  Under  good  cultural  conditions,  the  tree  can 
be  expected  to  produce  a  crop  every  year.  Again  quoting 
Bonavia,  it  may  be  said  that  the  tree  "bears  annually  an 
abundant  crop  of  fine,  well-flavored  and  aromatic  fruits,  which 
can  readily  be  sent  to  distant  markets.  Instead  of  being  planted 
by  ones  or  twos,  it  should  be  planted  by  the  thousand." 

In  picking  the  fruit,  entire  clusters  are  usually  broken  off, 
with  several  inches  of  stem  attached.  If  the  individual  fruits 
are  pulled  off  the  stems,  they  are  said  not  to  keep  well.  After 
they  are  picked  the  fruits  soon  lose  their  attractive  red  color, 
but  they  can  be  kept  for  two  or  three  weeks  without  deteriorat- 
ing in  flavor.  The  Chinese  sometimes  sprinkle  them  with  a  salt 


324     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

solution  and  pack  them  in  joints  of  bamboo  for  shipment  to 
distant  markets.  At  the  Hawaii  Experiment  Station  it  was 
found  that  "refrigeration,  where  it  is  available,  furnishes  the 
best  means  of  preserving  the  litchi  for  a  limited  period  in  its 
natural  state.  .  .  .  There  is  no  doubt  that  refrigeration  will 
provide  a  very  satisfactory  method  for  placing  upon  American 
markets  the  litchi  crop  grown  in  Florida,  California,  Hawaii, 
Porto  Rico,  or  Cuba." 

The  season  of  ripening  in  southern  China  is  from  May  to 
July.  In  northern  India  it  is  slightly  earlier.  In  Honolulu 
fresh  litchis  sell  for  50  to  75  cents  a  pound. 

Pests  and  diseases. 

Little  is  known  regarding  the  enemies  of  the  litchi  in  China. 
Brewster  says :  "There  is  a  worm  which  makes  a  ring  around 
the  trunk  under  the  bark.  When  the  circle  is  complete  the 
tree  dies ;  but  the  bark  is  broken  by  it,  and  by  careful  watching 
this  can  be  prevented  before  the  worm  does  serious  harm. 
There  is  also  a  sort  of  mildew  upon  the  leaves  in  certain  years 
that  does  much  harm,  and  the  Chinese  do  not  seem  to  have  any 
way  of  dealing  with  it." 

Several  insect  pests  are  reported  from  India.  A  small  brown 
weevil  (Amblyrrhinus  poricollis  Boh.),  the  larvse  of  a  gray- 
brown  moth  (Plotheia  celtis  Mo.),  and  the  larvae  of  Thalassodes 
quadraria  Guen.  feed  on  the  leaves.  The  larvae  of  Crypto- 
phlebia  carpophaga  Wlsm.  attack  the  fruits.  Several  species 
of  Arbela  (notably  A.  tetraonis  Mo.)  occur  as  borers  on  the 
tree. 

It  has  been  found  in  Hawaii  that  the  dreaded  Mediterranean 
fruit-fly  does  not  attack  the  litchi  fruit,  except  when  the  shell 
has  been  broken  and  the  pulp  exposed.  The  litchi  fruit-worm, 
the  larva  of  a  tortricid  moth  (Cryptophlebia  illepida  Btl.),  is 
said  to  have  caused  much  damage  to  the  fruit  crop  at  times. 
The  hemispherical  scale  (Saissetia  hemispherica  Targ.)  occa- 


PLATE  XVII.    The  litchi,  favorite  fruit  of  the  Chinese. 


THE  LITCHI   AND  ITS   RELATIVES  325 

sionally  attacks  weak  trees.  The  larva?  of  a  moth  (Archips 
postmttanus  Walker)  sometimes  injure  the  foliage  and  flowers. 
A  disease  which  has  been  termed  erinose,  caused  by  mites 
of  the  genus  Eriophyes,  has  been  reported  from  Hawaii,  where  it 
has  become  serious  on  certain  litchi  trees.  Spraying  with  a 
solution  of  10  ounces  nicotin  sulfate  and  If  pounds  whale-oil 
soap  in  50  gallons  of  water  was  found  to  eradicate  the  mites. 

Varieties. 

Since  the  litchi  has  been  propagated  vegetatively  from  ancient 
times,  it  is  natural  that  many  horticultural  varieties  should  be 
grown  at  the  present  day.  Most  of  these,  however,  are  un- 
known to  the  western  world.  Recently  they  have  been  studied 
by  Groff,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  best  will  be  brought  to 
light,  and  their  successful  introduction  into  the  American  tropics 
realized. 

The  variety  Loh  mai  chi  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  best  in  the 
world.  It  is  grown  in  the  vicinity  of  Canton.  Haak  ip  is  an- 
other Canton  litchi  said  to  be  choice.  All  together  thirty  or  forty 
kinds  are  reported  from  this  region,  some  of  them  being  particu- 
larly adapted  for  drying,  others  for  eating  fresh,  and  so  on. 

The  varieties  cultivated  in  India  are  not  in  all  instances 
clearly  distinguished.  The  best  known  is  Bedana  (meaning 
seedless),  a  medium-sized  fruit  in  which  the  seed  is  small  and 
shriveled.  Probably  several  distinct  sorts  are  known  by  this 
name.  McLean's,  Dudhia,  China,  and  Rose  are  other  varietal 
names  which  appear  in  the  lists  of  Indian  nurserymen. 

THE  LONGAN 
(Euphoria  longana,  Lam.) 

Opinions  differ  regarding  the  value  of  the  longan.  It  is 
popular  among  the  Chinese,  but  Americans  who  have  tested 
longans  produced  in  California  and  Florida  have  not  as  a  rule 
considered  them  good.  Frank  N.  Meyer  says  that  they  are 


326     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

improved  by  cooking,  and  that  preserved  longans  are  considered 
by  some  superior  to  preserved  litchis,  the  flavor  being  thought 
more  delicate. 

According  to  Alphonse  DeCandolle,  the  longan  is  a  native 
of  India,  whence  it  has  been  introduced  into  the  Malay  Archi- 
pelago, southern  China,  and  (recently)  tropical  America.  It  is  a 
tree  30  to  40  feet  high,  resembling  the  litchi  in  habit  and  appear- 
ance. The  leaves  are  compound,  with  two  to  five  pairs  of  elliptic 
to  lanceolate,  glabrous,  glossy,  light  green  leaflets.  The  flowers 
are  borne  in  terminal  and  axillary  panicles,  and  are  small  and 
unattractive.  The  fruit  is  round,  an  inch  or  less  in  diameter, 
light  brown  in  color,  with  a  thin  shell-like  outer  covering,  and 
white  flesh  (aril)  similar  in  character  to  that  of  the  litchi  but  less 
sprightly  in  flavor.  The  single  seed  is  dark  brown  and  shining. 

Meyer  says:  "The  fruit,  which  is  naturally  brown,  is  gen- 
erally artificially  changed  to  a  chrome-yellow.  It  is  eaten 
fresh,  canned,  or  dried.  In  the  last  condition  one  can  obtain 
it  at  the  Chinese  New  Year  time  in  the  most  northern  cities 
of  the  Empire.  There  are  several  varieties  of  longans,  differing 
in  size  of  fruit,  productivity,  and  size  of  kernel.  Their  northern 
limit  of  growing  seems  to  be,  like  that  of  the  litchi,  the  region 
around  Foochow." 

Analysis  of  the  longan  by  Alice  R.  Thompson  has  shown  the 
ripe  fruit  to  contain :  Total  solids  17.61  per  cent,  protein 
1.41,  total  sugars  8.34,  fat  0.45,  and  fiber,  0.63. 

In  French,  the  longan  is  commonly  termed  ceil  de  dragon 
(dragon's  eye).  The  Chinese  name  is  spelled  alternatively 
longyen,  long  an,  lung  an,  lingeng,  and  so  on.  Botanical 
synonyms  of  Euphoria  Longana  are  Nephelium  Longana, 
Cambess.,  and  Dimocarpus  Longan,  Lour. 

In  southern  California  and  in  southern  Florida,  the  longan 
thrives  and  fruits  abundantly  if  planted  in  situations  not  subject 
to  severe  frosts.  It  withstands  lower  temperatures  than  the 
litchi  and  is  less  exacting  in  its  cultural  requirements.  P.  D. 


THE  LITCHI   AND  ITS  RELATIVES  327 

Barnhart,  writing  in  the  Pacific  Garden,  says  of  its  culture  in 
California :  "  We  are  of  the  opinion  that  the  greatest  success 
may  only  be  obtained  with  it  in  the  warmer  foothill  sections  of 
the  country,  and  that,  too,  beneath  the  sheltering  arms  of  live 
oaks.  It  seems  necessary  to  protect  it  from  the  direct  sunlight 
and  desiccating  atmosphere  of  our  summers,  as  well  as  from  the 
frosts  of  winters.  It  requires  an  abundance  of  water  during 
the  summer  months."  It  has  been  much  more  successful 
on  the  shallow  soils  of  the  Miami  region  in  southern  Florida 
than  its  relative  the  litchi. 

Propagation  is  by  seed,  layering,  and  grafting,  as  with  the 
litchi.  Higgins  remarks  concerning  the  habits  of  the  tree: 
"  The  statement  has  been  made  that  it  is  a  slower  grower  than 
the  litchi,  but  this  certainly  does  not  hold  true  under  Hawaiian 
conditions,  where  it  is  a  robust  tree  far  exceeding  the  litchi  in 
vigor  and  rapidity  of  growth.  As  in  the  case  of  the  litchi, 
seedlings  frequently  are  very  tardy  coming  into  bearing."  In 
southern  China,  where  the  longan  is  extensively  grown,  it  is  said 
to  require  more  pruning  than  the  litchi. 

The  fruit  ripens  somewhat  later  than  that  of  the  litchi,  and 
is  popular  among  the  Chinese,  quantities  of  it  being  sold  in 
Hongkong  and  Canton  during  late  summer.  Doubtless  some 
of  the  varieties  cultivated  in  China  are  superior  in  quality  of 
fruit  to  the  seedlings  which  have  been  grown  in  the  United 
States.  It  has  been  the  general  opinion  of  those  who  have 
tasted  the  American-grown  longan  that  it  is  insipid  and 
somewhat  mawkish,  although  Barnhart  considers  it  excellent. 

THE  RAMBUTAN  (Plate  XX) 
(Nephelium  lappaceum,  L.) 

In  the  Malay  Archipelago  are  found  several  valuable  tropical 
fruits  which  have  not  yet  become  extensively  cultivated  else- 
where. The  rambutan  is  one  of  them.  It  is  grown  in  nearly 


328     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

every  garden  in  Singapore  and  Penang,  and  its  fruit  is  one  of 
the  most  delicious  of  the  region.  It  resembles  the  litchi  in 
character. 

As  seen  in  cultivation,  the  tree  is  35  or  40  feet  high,  erect 
and  stately  in  appearance.  The  compound  leaves  are  com- 
posed of  five  to  seven  pairs  of  elliptic,  obovate,  or  oblong  leaflets, 
glabrate,  about  4  inches  long,  shining  and  dark  green  above, 
paler  beneath.  The  flower-panicles  are  axillary  and  terminal, 
loose  and  spreading  in  form,  the  flowers  small,  pubescent,  the 
calyx  campanulate,  five-  or  six-cleft,  the  petals  wanting.  The 
fruits,  which  are  produced  in  clusters  of  ten  or  twelve,  are  oval, 
about  2  inches  in  length,  and  covered  with  soft  fleshy  spines  J 
inch  long.  They  are  crimson  in  color,  sometimes  greenish, 
yellowish,  or  orange-yellow.  The  outer  covering,  from  which 
the  spines  arise,  is  thin  and  leathery,  and  is  easily  torn  off,  ex- 
posing the  white,  translucent,  juicy  flesh  (aril)  which  adheres 
to  the  oblong,  pointed,  and  flattened  seed.  The  flavor  is 
acidulous,  somewhat  suggesting  that  of  the  grape.  It  is 
usually  relished  by  Europeans,  though  considered  slightly 
inferior  to  its  relative  the  litchi. 

Apparently  the  rambutan  is  well  distributed  throughout 
the  Malay  Archipelago.  H.  F.  Macmillan  says :  "It  is  curious 
that  this  fruit,  which  is  so  common  in  the  low-country  of 
Ceylon  and  in  the  Straits,  appears  to  be  scarcely  known  in 
India,  Mauritius,  Madagascar,  etc."  It  has  been  introduced 
into  the  American  tropics  by  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  but  is  not  yet  well  established  there. 

The  common  name  is  taken  from  the  Malayan  word  rambut, 
meaning  hair,  and  has  reference  to  the  long  soft  spines  with 
which  the  fruit  is  covered.  Rambustan,  ramboetan,  and  rara- 
botang  are  forms  sometimes  used.  The  French  spell  it  ram- 
boutan  and  sometimes  call  the  fruit  litchi  chevelu  (hairy  litchi). 

The  rambutan  is  eaten  fresh.  It  has  been  found  to  contain 
about  the  same  amount  of  sugar  as  the  litchi  and  longan,  as 


THE   LIT  CHI   AND   ITS   RELATIVES  329 

follows :  Saccharose  7.8  per  cent,  dextrose  2.25,  and  levulose 
1.25. 

In  climatic  requirements  the  rambutan  must  be  considered 
strictly  tropical.  It  thrives  in  Ceylon  up  to  elevations  of  2000 
feet,  which  means  that  it  does  not  grow  in  the  cooler  parts  of 
the  island.  It  likes  a  moist  hot  climate  and  may  not,  therefore, 
succeed  anywhere  on  the  mainland  of  the  United  States,  al- 
though there  is  a  possibility  that  it  might  be  grown  in  extreme 
southern  Florida.  It  should  be  practicable  to  grow  it  in  many 
parts  of  the  American  tropics. 

Little  is  known  regarding  the  culture  of  the  tree.  It  succeeds 
on  deep,  rich,  and  moist  soils,  but  its  adaptability  as  regards 
soil  and  other  conditions  is  not  definitely  understood.  It  is 
propagated  by  seed,  and  by  air-layering  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  litchi;  it  has  also  been  inarched  successfully.  Mature 
trees  are  productive,  the  bearing  habits  of  the  rambutan  re- 
sembling those  of  the  litchi.  It  is  said  that  there  are  fifteen 
varieties,  differing  in  color,  size,  and  flavor,  cultivated  in  the 
Malayan  region,  but  they  are  not  well  known  horticulturally. 

THE  PULASAN   (Fig.  43) 
(Nephelium  mutabile,  Bl.) 

In  the  markets  of  Singapore,  the  pulasan  is  sold  as  a  variety  of 
the  rambutan.  It  is,  however,  a  distinct  species  and  is  known 
elsewhere  in  the  Malayan  region  under  a  different  name. 

The  tree,  which  is  considered  to  be  indigenous  in  Java  and 
Borneo,  is  not  well  known  horticulturally.  The  leaves  are 
compound,  with  two  to  four  pairs  of  oblong  to  elliptic,  acumi- 
nate leaflets  commonly  5  to  10  inches  long,  glabrous  and  shining 
above,  glaucous  beneath.  The  fruit  is  larger  than  that  of  the 
rambutan,  with  a  stouter  stem,  and  is  borne  in  closely-crowded 
clusters  of  three  to  five  fruits,  instead  of  loose  clusters  of  a 
dozen  or  so.  The  pericarp  or  outer  covering  is  thick,  sometimes 


330     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

f  inch,  and  the  spines  are  short,  blunt,  and  stout,  much  swollen 
near  the  base ;  whereas  the  pericarp  of  the  rambutan  is  rarely 
more  than  J  inch  thick,  and  the  spines  are  much  longer  and 
taper  uniformly  toward  the  base.  The  flesh  of  the  pulasan  is 
less  juicy  than  that  of  the  rambutan,  sweeter,  and  of  less 
sprightly  flavor.  The  size  of  the  seeds  is  about  the  same  in 
both  species. 

Other  forms  of  the  common  name  are  kapoelasan,  capulasan, 
and  pulassan. 

Like  its  congener  the  rambutan,  the  pulasan  is  probably  suit- 
able for  cultivation  only  in 
moist  tropical  regions.  It 
is  not  known  to  have  been 
grown  to  fruiting  age  any- 
where in  tropical  America, 
but  there  are  many  places 
where  it  should  succeed. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  it 

FIG.  43.     The  pulasan  (Nephelium  muta-  w{\\   do    so  jn  Florida,  and 

bile),  a  relative  of  the  litchi  which  is  culti-  ^   *.£ 

vated   in   the    Malayan  Archipelago.     The  California     IS     UnqUCStlon- 

translucent,  white,  subacid  pulp  adheres  ably  too  COol  and  dry  for  it. 
closely  to  a  large  seed.  (X  i)  JL 

Harry  H.  Boyle  says  of 

the  pulasan  in  Siam :  "  All  the  trees  are  propagated  by  marcot- 
tage  (air-layering),  budding  and  grafting  being  unknown  arts 
in  Siam.  The  flavor  of  some  of  the  varieties  is  delicious  and 
many  trees  produce  seedless  fruit." 

THE  AKEE  (Plate  XVIII) 
(Blighia  sapida,  Koen.) 

Like  the  oil  palm  (Elceis  guineensis),  now  common  on  the 
coast  of  Brazil,  the  akee  is  an  African  plant  which  was  brought 
to  America  in  the  days  of  the  slave  trade.  According  to 
William  Harris,  it  reached  Jamaica  in  1778.  It  is  now  common 


THE  LITCHI   AND  ITS   RELATIVES  331 

in  that  island,  and  is  cultivated  on  a  limited  scale  in  other  parts 
of  the  West  Indies,  as  well  as  on  the  mainland  of  tropical 
America.  In  the  Orient  it  is  rare.  Its  native  home  is  in  tropi- 
cal West  Africa. 

On  deep  rich  soils  the  tree  becomes  35  or  40  feet  in  height. 
It  is  erect  in  habit,  with  an  open  crown  and  stiff  branches. 
The  leaves  are  abruptly  pinnate,  with  three  to  five  pairs  of 
short-stalked,  obovate-oblong  leaflets,  the  upper  ones  4  to  6 
inches  in  length,  the  lowest  pair  much  shorter.  The  small 
flowers  are  borne  in  short  axillary  racemes.  The  sepals  and 
petals  are  five  in  number,  the  latter  greenish  white  in  color. 
The  fruit  is  a  curious-looking  capsule,  about  3  inches  long, 
triangular  in  general  outline,  and  straw-colored  to  magenta-red. 
When  ripe  it  opens  along  three  sutures,  exposing  three  round 
shining  seeds,  with  a  whitish  fleshy  body  at  the  base  of  each. 
The  fleshy  substance  (technically  the  arillus),  resembles  in 
appearance  the  brain  of  a  small  animal.  It  is  firm  and  oily 
in  texture,  and  has  a  somewhat  nutty  flavor.  When  fried  in 
butter  it  is  a  delicious  morsel,  and  it  is  excellent  boiled  with  salt 
fish.  It  has  long  been  believed  that  the  akee,  unless  cooked,  is 
poisonous.  J.  J.  Bowrey,1  analytical  chemist  to  the  Govern- 
ment of  Jamaica,  found  that : 

"  Unripe  akees  if  eaten  freely  bring  on  vomiting.  Decaying  akees 
are  decidedly  unwholesome,  and  may  even  be  very  poisonous.  This  is 
true  of  many  foods.  Fresh  ripe  akees  are  good  and  harmless  food, 
rather  rich  it  is  true,  but  to  most  persons  quite  wholesome.  There 
may  be  individual  idiosyncrasies  with  regard  to  akee,  as  there  are  to  such 
usually  harmless  foods  as  mutton,  duck,  pork,  mushrooms,  etc.  The 
red  membrane  of  the  akee,  so  commonly  believed  to  be  poisonous,  is 
perfectly  harmless.  If  the  fruit  be  ripe  and  fresh,  which  can  be 
known  by  its  being  open,  the  edible  portion  firm,  and  the  red  part  bright 
in  color,  it  may  be  considered  a  good  and  safe  food.  But  if  the  fruit 
be  not  ripe,  or  if  there  are  any  signs  of  decay,  such  as  mouldiness  or 
softening  of  the  edible  portion,  or  a  dingy  color  in  the  ordinary  red 
part,  the  fruit  should  not  be  eaten." 

i  Kew  Bull.  1892,  p.  109. 


332     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

The  name  akee  came  to  America  from  Africa  along  with  the 
fruit  itself,  and  is  generally  used  (sometimes  as  akee-apple)  in 
the  British  colonies  where  the  tree  is  grown.  In  Spanish-speak- 
ing countries  the  usual  name  is  seso  vegetal,  or  vegetable  brains. 
Cupania  sapida,  Voigt.,  is  a  botanical  synonym  of  Blighia 
sapida,  Koen. 

In  tropical  America  the  akee  is  grown  most  commonly  in  the 
hot  moist  lowlands.  Since  it  has  succeeded  in  southern  Florida, 
however,  the  species  cannot  be  considered  strictly  tropical  in 
its  requirements.  When  young  it  is  susceptible  to  frost,  but 
plants  which  have  attained  four  or  five  years'  growth  have 
passed  through  temperatures  of  26°  above  zero  with  very  little 
injury.  Several  have  been  grown  at  Miami  and  Palm  Beach, 
and  the  fruit  which  they  have  produced  has  been  equal  in  every 
respect  to  that  grown  in  the  tropics.  No  large  plants  are  known 
in  California  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  species  will  succeed 
anywhere  in  that  state.  It  thrives  on  deep  loamy  soils  with 
abundant  moisture,  but  makes  satisfactory  (though  slow) 
growth  on  the  shallow  sandy  soils  of  southeastern  Florida.  It 
has  come  into  bearing  at  Miami  when  about  five  years  old. 

Propagation  is  usually  by  seed,  but  vegetative  means  should 
prove  successful.  No  horticultural  varieties  have  been  estab- 
lished. 

THE  MAMONCILLO 
(Melicocca  bijuga,  L.) 

Unlike  its  oriental  relatives  the  litchi,  the  longan,  and  the 
rambutan,  the  mamoncillo  is  strictly  an  American  plant.  It  is 
cultivated  in  the  West  Indies  and  on  the  neighboring  mainland 
of  South  America,  in  which  latter  region  it  is  considered  to  be 
indigenous.  In  Porto  Rico  and  Cuba  it  is  a  popular  fruit  among 
the  poorer  classes. 

In  habit  and  foliage  the  species  resembles  the  soapberry 


THE  LIT  CHI   AND  ITS  RELATIVES  333 

(Sapindus  Saponaria).  The  tree,  which  grows  slowly,  is  erect, 
shapely,  30  to  40  or  sometimes  as  much  as  60  feet  high.  The 
leaves  are  compound,  with  two  pairs  of  elliptic-lanceolate, 
acute,  glabrous  leaflets,  the  lower  pair  about  half  the  size  of  the 
upper.  The  small  flowers,  which  are  produced  in  short  panicles, 
are  followed  by  clusters  of  smooth  round  fruits  about  the  size 
of  plums.  The  outer  covering  of  these  fruits  is  thick  and 
leathery,  and  green  on  the  surface ;  it  incloses  a  large  round  seed 
surrounded  by  soft,  yellowish,  translucent,  juicy  pulp.  The 
flavor  is  said  to  be  usually  sweet  and  pleasant,  but  in  many 
varieties  it  is  acid,  especially  if  the  fruit  is  not  fully  ripe. 

The  generic  name  Melicocca  means  honey-berry,  and  is 
intended  to  refer  to  the  flavor  of  the  fruit ;  but  some  of  the 
mamoncillos  grown  in  Cuba  are  frequently  as  sour  as  limes. 
Indeed,  one  of  the  common  names  for  this  fruit  in  southern 
Florida  is  Spanish-lime ;  it  is  also  there  called  genip.  Mamon- 
cillo  is  the  Cuban  name.  In  Porto  Rico  it  is  known  as  genipe. 
In  the  French  islands  this  same  name  (supposedly)  is  current, 
in  the  form  quenette  or  knepe. 

P.  W.  Reasoner  says :  "The  fruit  markets  well  in  Key  West, 
and  there  are  a  number  of  fine  bearing  trees  in  that  place,  and 
on  the  other  islands.  It  is  worthy  of  more  attention  all  over 
south  Florida."  At  Miami  and  Palm  Beach  it  grows  well, 
but  some  of  the  trees  do  not  bear  fruit.  The  mature  plant  with- 
stands several  degrees  of  frost  without  injury.  It  does  not 
require  rich  soil,  nor  is  it  particularly  exacting  in  other  ways. 
So  far  as  is  known,  it  has  never  been  grown  to  fruiting  stage  in 
California. 

The  mamoncillo  has  been  propagated  up  to  the  present 
time  exclusively  by  seed.  It  will  probably  lend  itself,  however, 
to  the  vegetative  methods  which  are  employed  with  its  relatives. 
No  horticultural  varieties  have  been  established. 


CHAPTER  XI 
THE   SAPOTACEOUS  FRUITS 

THE  sapotaceous  fruits  are  so  named  from  the  family  Sapota- 
cere,  to  which  they  belong,  and  which  in  turn  is  named  from  the 
old  generic  name  Sapota  (now  represented  in  Achras  Sapota, 
the  sapodilla).  The  species  are  mostly  tropical,  although  a  few 
species  of  little  economic  importance  are  native  in  the  United 
States  north  of  the  Florida  Keys. 

THE  SAPODILLA  (Plate  XIX) 
(Achras  Sapota,  L.) 

Gonzalo  Hernandez  de  Oviedo,  who  was  one  of  the  first 
Europeans  to  study  the  plants  of  the  New  World,  called  the 
sapodilla  the  best  of  all  fruits.  More  recently,  Thomas  Firm- 
inger,  an  English  horticulturist  who  lived  in  India,  wrote  of  it 
that  "  a  more  luscious,  cool,  and  agreeable  fruit  is  not  to  be  met 
with  in  this  or  perhaps  any  country  in  the  world" ;  while  the 
poetic  French  botanist,  Michel  Etienne  Descourtilz,  has  char- 
acteristically described  it  as  having  "the  sweet  perfumes  of 
honey,  jasmine,  and  lily  of  the  valley." 

While  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  indorse  the  enthusiastic 
opinion  of  Oviedo,  the  sapodilla  must  be  considered  one  of  the 
best  fruits  of  tropical  America.  It  cannot  vie,  perhaps,  with 
the  pineapple  or  the  cherimoya,  but  it  is  deservedly  held  in 
great  esteem  by  the  inhabitants  of  many  tropical  countries. 

The  tree  is  evergreen  and  stately,  sometimes  attaining  a 
height  of  50  to  75  feet,  with  a  dense  rounded  or  conical  crown. 

334 


THE  SAPOTACEOUS   FRUITS  335 

The  wood  is  hard  and  durable;  in  fact,  lintels  believed  to  be 
made  from  it  are  found  in  the  ruins  of  Tikal  (Central  America), 
dated  9. 15. 10.0.0  (Maya  chronology)  or470A.D.  The  branches 
often  extend  from  the  trunk  horizontally.  They  are  tough  and 
pliable,  which  makes  the  sapodilla  more  resistant  to  cyclones 
and  hurricanes  than  many  other  tropical  fruit-trees.  The  bark 
contains  a  milky  latex  known  commercially  as  chicle.  This 
product  is  secured  by  tapping  the  trunk,  and  is  exported  in 
large  quantities  from  southern  Mexico  and  Central  America 
to  the  United  States,  where  it  is  used  as  the  basis  of  chewing- 
gum.  The  leaves  are  entire  or  emarginate,  ovate-elliptic  to 
elliptic-lanceolate  in  outline,  thick,  stiff,  shining,  and  2  to  5 
inches  long.  The  small  flowers  are  produced  in  the  leaf-axils 
toward  the  ends  of  the  branchlets;  the  calyx  is  composed  of 
six  small,  ovate  sepals,  and  the  corolla  is  white,  tubular,  lobu- 
late,  with  six  stamens  opposite  the  lobules.  The  ovary  is 
ten-  to  twelve-celled,  each  cell  containing  one  ovule.  The 
fruit  is  variable  in  form,  but  commonly  is  round,  oval,  or  conical, 
and  2  to  3£  inches  in  diameter.  The  thin  skin  is  rusty  brown 
and  somewhat  scurfy,  giving  the  fruit  a  striking  resemblance  to 
an  Irish  potato.  The  flesh  in  the  ripe  fruit  is  yellow-brown, 
translucent,  soft,  sweet,  and  delicious,  but  when  immature 
it  contains  tannin  and  a  milky  latex,  so  that  it  must  not  be 
eaten  until  fully  ripe.  The  flavor  has  been  likened  to  that  of 
pears  and  brown  sugar  together ;  it  is  rich,  slightly  fragrant, 
and  very  pleasing  to  those  who  like  sweet  fruits.  The  seeds 
vary  from  none  to  ten  or  twelve  and  are  hard,  black,  shining, 
obovate,  flattened,  and  about  £  inch  long.  They  are  easily 
separated  from  the  flesh  and  give  little  trouble  in  eating  the 
fruit. 

The  sapodilla  is  native  to  tropical  America.  Henry  Pittier 
considers  it  indigenous  in  Mexico  south  of  the  Isthmus  of 
Tehuantepec,  in  Guatemala,  and  possibly  in  Salvador  and 
northern  Honduras.  It  is  particularly  abundant  in  the  low- 


336     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

lands  of  Tabasco,  Chiapas,  and  the  western  part  of  Yucatan, 
throughout  which  region  the  wild  trees  are  tapped  for  chicle  gum. 
From  its  native  home  it  has  been  carried  around  the  world. 
It  is  grown  on  the  western  coast  of  India  and  in  Bengal,  and, 
according  to  H.  F.  Macmillan,  was  introduced  into  Ceylon 
about  1802,  but  it  has  not  become  widely  cultivated  in  that 
island.  One  meets  with  the  tree  in  some  parts  of  Africa,  and 
Gerrit  P.  Wilder  says  it  is  common  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 
Throughout  tropical  America,  it  is  abundant  from  southern 
Brazil  to  Florida. 

In  California  the  sapodilla  has  not  been  a  success.  Occasional 
trees  in  favored  locations  have  lived  for  several  years,  but  they 
have  never  reached  the  fruiting  stage.  Frosts  have  eventually 
killed  most  of  them,  and  even  the  coolness  of  California  nights 
has  proved  unfavorable  to  their  natural  development.  In  Florida 
the  plant's  cultivation  is  limited  to  the  east  coast  from  Palm 
Beach  (or  perhaps  farther  north)  southward  to  Key  West,  and 
on  the  west  coast  as  far  north  as  the  Manatee  River.  Mature 
trees  in  that  state  have  passed  uninjured  through  temperatures 
of  28°  above  zero,  according  to  P.  W.  Reasoner.  On  the  Florida 
Keys  the  sapodilla  is  one  of  the  favorite  fruits. 

The  common  name  sapodilla,  by  which  the  fruit  is  known  in 
Florida,  is  taken  from  the  Spanish  zapotillo,  meaning  small 
zapote.  In  Mexico  the  usual  name  is  chicozapote  (often  abbre- 
viated to  chico) ;  this  is  derived  from  the  Nahuatl  tzicozapotl, 
or  gum  zapotl.  In  Mexico  and  other  Spanish-speaking  countries 
it  is  also  called  nispero,  a  name  which  properly  belongs  to  the 
European  medlar,  Mespilus  germanica.  The  English  have 
formed  from  this  the  term  naseberry,  which  is  current  in  the 
West  Indies  and  India.  In  the  latter  country  it  is  called  in 
Marathi  chiku.  The  Maya  name  yd  is  used  in  Yucatan.  In 
southern  Brazil  one  form  of  the  fruit  is  called  sapoti,  another 
sapota,  while  at  Para  the  name  is  sapotilha.  In  German  it  is 
called  breiapfel,  and  in  French  sapotille.  The  botanical 


THE  SAPOTACEOUS   FRUITS  337 

synonymy  is  rather  extensive:  Achras  Sapota,  L.,  Sapota 
Achras,  Mill.,  and  Sapota  zapotilla,  Coville,  are  sometimes 
used. 

The  sapodilla  is  preeminently  a  dessert  fruit.  Rarely  is 
it  cooked  or  preserved  in  any  way,  although  in  Cuba  and  Brazil 
it  is  often  made  into  a  sherbet.  According  to  Carl  Wehmer  1  it 
contains  about  14  per  cent  of  sugar,  of  which  7.02  is  saccharose, 
3.7  dextrose,  and  3.4  levulose.  It  also  contains  a  small 
amount  of  acid  and  about  1  per  cent  of  ash. 

Although  tropical  in  character,  the  sapodilla  does  not  require 
a  high  degree  of  humidity  nor  entire  freedom  from  frost.  If 
liberally  irrigated  it  can  be  grown  in  regions  where  the  atmos- 
pheric humidity  is  low.  The  plant  while  young  is  injured 
by  temperatures  below  freezing,  but  when  mature  it  withstands 
27°  or  28°  above  zero.  Although  it  prefers  a  rich  sandy  loam, 
it  thrives  on  light  clay  and  also  on  the  shallow  sandy  soil 
underlaid  with  soft  limestone  which  is  found  on  the  lower  east 
coast  of  Florida.  Indeed,  its  aptitude  for  rocky  and  forbidding 
situations  on  the  Florida  Keys  is  remarkable.  It  is  said  to  grow 
well  in  India  both  on  red  sandy  soil  along  the  seashore  and  in  the 
black  alluvial  land  of  the  Dekkan. 

It  is  the  custom  in  India  to  plant  sapodilla  trees  15  to  20  feet 
apart.  This  is  too  close  for  the  best  results,  particularly  if 
the  soil  is  rich  and  deep  so  that  the  tree  grows  to  large  size; 
30  feet  apart  is  probably  close  enough  on  good  soils.  V.  N. 
Gokhale,  writing  in  the  Poona  Agriculture  College  Magazine 
(1911),  reports  that  in  India  the  young  plants  are  set  in  pits  1 
foot  wide  and  2  to  3  feet  deep  in  which  a  quantity  of  sheep- 
manure  has  been  mixed  with  the  soil,  and  that  the  mature  trees 
are  regularly  supplied  with  manure  two  or  three  times  a  year. 

Little  attention  has  yet  been  given  to  pruning.  Since  the 
tree  is  of  slow  compact  growth,  it  will  probably  require  nothing 
more  than  the  removal  of  an  occasional  unshapely  branch.  In 
1  Die  Pflanzenstoffe. 


338     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

southern  Florida  it  thrives  under  the  same  cultural  attention  as 
citrus  fruits. 

The  sapodilla  is  usually  propagated  by  seed,  but  the  varia- 
tion among  seedlings  in  productiveness  as  well  as  in  quality, 
size,  and  shape  of  fruit  necessitates  some  asexual  means  of 
propagation  if  the  most  desirable  forms  are  to  be  perpetuated. 
Edward  Simmonds  has  shown  in  Florida  that  the  species  can  be 
budded  in  the  same  manner  as  the  mango.  Grafting  and  layer- 
ing have  been  practiced  in  India. 

Seeds,  if  kept  dry,  will  retain  their  viability  for  several  years. 
They  should  be  sown  in  flats  of  light  sandy  soil,  and  covered  to 
the  depth  of  J  inch.  In  warm  weather  germination  takes  place 
within  a  month.  The  young  seedlings,  after  they  have  made 
their  second  leaves,  may  be  potted  off  and  carried  along  thus 
for  a  year  or  two,  when  they  will  be  large  enough  to  be  set  out 
in  the  open  ground.  Their  growth  is  slow.  If  they  are  to  be 
budded  they  should  be  planted  in  nursery  rows  which  are  3 
feet  apart,  and  18  inches  apart  in  the  row.  In  southern  Florida, 
May  has  proved  to  be  a  good  month  for  budding;  in  strictly 
tropical  regions  it  can  probably  be  done  at  any  time  of  the  year, 
provided  the  stock-plants  are  in  active  growth.  Bud  wood 
should  be  chosen  from  young  branchlets  which  have  begun  to 
lose  their  greenish  color  and  assume  a  brownish  tinge.  It  should 
be  examined  carefully  to  ascertain  that  the  axillary  buds  or 
"eyes"  are  well  developed.  Shield-budding  is  the  method 
employed,  the  details  being  practically  the  same  as  in  budding 
the  mango.  After  making  the  incision  in  the  stock,  the  bud 
should  be  inserted  promptly,  since  the  latex  soon  collects 
around  the  wound  and  renders  insertion  difficult.  Waxed  tape 
should  be  used  for  wrapping.  After  three  or  four  weeks,  the 
stock  may  be  headed  back  and  the  wrap  loosened,  leaving  the 
eye  exposed  so  that  it  may  start  into  growth. 

A.  C.  Hartless,  superintendent  of  the  Government  Botanical 
Gardens  at  Saharanpur,  India,  has  found  that  the  sapodilla 


THE  SAPOTACEOUS   FRUITS  339 

can  be  inarched  and  cleft-grafted  on  Mimusops  Kauki,  L. 
Propagated  in  this  manner  the  tree  is  dwarfed  and  bears  at  an 
earlier  age  than  when  grown  on  its  own  roots;  it  is  believed 
also  to  be  more  productive.  V.  N.  Gokhale  says  that  propaga- 
tion in  western  India  is  by  seeds  and  layering.  Plants  obtained 
from  layers  are  believed  to  be  more  vigorous  than  those  from 
seed.  Eight  to  ten  layers  can  be  made  each  year  from  a  bearing 
tree,  choosing  the  branches  close  to  the  ground. 

Seedling  sapodillas  rarely  come  into  bearing  until  six  to  eight 
years  of  age,  even  when  grown  under  favorable  conditions. 
They  usually  fruit  heavily,  and  often  produce  two  crops  a 
year,  one  being  much  lighter,  however,  than  the  other.  Due 
to  this  habit,  together  with  the  natural  variation  in  season 
among  seedling  trees,  ripe  sapodillas  are  to  be  found  in  the 
markets  of  tropical  America  almost  throughout  the  year. 

Experiments  have  shown  that  the  fruit  can  be  shipped  success- 
fully and  with  little  care  in  packing.  The  skin  is  thin  and 
delicate  and  the  fully  ripe  fruit  is  injured  very  easily ;  but  if 
picked  while  still  hard  or  "tree  ripe,"  it  does  not  begin  to  soften 
for  several  days.  Sapodillas  have  been  shipped  from  the 
Florida  Keys  to  New  York,  packed  in  tomato-crates  which  hold 
six  small  baskets,  each  basket  carrying  six  good-sized  fruits. 
For  local  consumption,  or  for  shipping  short  distances,  the 
common  procedure  in  Florida  is  to  pull  the  fruits  from  the 
trees  and  simply  throw  them  into  boxes  or  baskets,  in  which 
they  are  carried  to  market,  the  ripe  ones  being  picked  out  daily. 

The  fruit-flies  (Trypetidse)  are  serious  pests  of  the  sapodilla 
in  some  regions,  their  larvae  infesting  the  ripe  fruit  and  render- 
ing it  unfit  for  consumption.  Ceratitis  capitata,  Wied.,  the 
Mediterranean  fruit-fly,  and  Anastrepha  ludens,  Loew.,  the 
Mexican  fruit-fly,  are  two  of  the  most  troublesome  species. 
The  tree  is  attacked  by  very  few  insect  or  fungous  enemies. 

Seedlings  differ  in  productiveness,  ripening  season,  and  in 
size,  shape,  and  character  of  their  fruits.  Those  which  are 


340     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

unusually  choice  or  valuable  should  be  propagated  by  budding, 
grafting,  or  layering,  and  established  as  named  varieties. 
Occasionally  a  seedless  kind  is  found,  or  one  whose  fruits  are 
very  large,  weighing  a  pound  or  even  more.  Differences  in 
flavor  and  quality  of  fruit  are  also  noticeable.  There  are  not 
as  yet  any  named  varieties  known  in  the  trade. 

THE  SAPOTE  (Fig.  44) 
(Calocarpum  mammosum,  Pierre) 

The  sapote  is  one  of  the  important  fruits  of  the  Central 
American  lowlands.  It  furnishes  to  the  Indians  a  nourishing 
and  agreeable  food,  obtainable  during  a  certain  part  of  the  year 

in  considerable  abundance. 
Cook  and  Collins  remark  :  "  It 
was  this  fruit  that  kept  Cortes 
and  his  army  alive  on  their 
famous  march  from  Mexico  City 
to  Honduras." 

In  the  hot  and   humid   low- 
lands the  sapote  becomes  a  large 

tree»  often  65  feet  high.  with  a 
thick  trunk  and  stout  branches. 

The  Indians,  when  clearing  the  forest  in  order  to  plant  coffee 
or  other  crops,  usually  spare  the  sapote  trees  they  encounter, 
for  they  regard  the  fruit  highly.  The  foliage  is  abundant,  and 
light  green  in  color.  The  leaves,  which  are  clustered  toward  the 
ends  of  the  stout  branchlets,  are  obovate  to  oblanceolate  in 
outline,  broadest  toward  the  apex,  and  4  to  10  inches  long. 
The  small  flowers  are  produced  in  great  numbers  along  the 
branchlets.  The  sepals  are  eight  to  ten,  imbricate,  in  several 
series;  the  corolla  is  tubular,  whitish,  with  five  lobes.  The 
stamens  are  five  and  the  ovary  is  hairy,  five-celled,  with  one 
ovule  in  each  cell.  The  fruit  is  elliptic  or  oval  in  form,  com- 


THE  SAPOTACEOUS   FRUITS  341 

monly  3  to  6  inches  long,  russet-brown  in  color,  the  skin 
thick  and  woody  and  the  surface  somewhat  scurfy.  The  flesh 
is  firm,  salmon-red  to  reddish  brown  in  color,  and  finely  granular 
in  texture.  The  large  elliptic  seed  can  be  lifted  out  of  the 
fruit  as  easily  as  that  of  an  avocado;  it  is  hard,  brown,  and 
shining,  except  on  the  ventral  surface,  which  is  whitish  and 
somewhat  rough.  To  one  unaccustomed  to  the  exceedingly 
sweet  fruits  of  the  tropics,  the  flavor  of  the  sapote  is  at  first 
somewhat  cloying  because  of  its  richness  and  lack  of  acidity. 
When  made  into  a  sherbet,  as  is  done  in  Habana,  it  is  sure  to  be 
relished  at  first  trial.  Inferior  or  improperly  ripened  sapotes 
will  be  found  to  have  a  pronounced  squash-like  flavor. 

Pittier,  whose  studies  of  the  sapotaceous  fruits  have  done 
much  to  clear  away  the  botanical  confusion  in  which  they  have 
been  involved,  considers  the  sapote  to  be  indigenous  to  Central 
America.  Outside  of  its  native  area  it  is  grown  in  the  West 
Indies,  in  South  America,  and  in  the  Philippines.  In  Cuba  it 
is  particularly  abundant  and  the  fruit  highly  esteemed.  Though 
it  has  been  planted  in  southeastern  Florida  it  has  never  suc- 
ceeded in  that  region.  The  limiting  factor  there  seems  to  be 
unfavorable  soil  rather  than  temperature,  while  in  California 
it  has  always  succumbed  to  the  cold,  even  when  grown  in  the 
most  protected  situations. 

In  the  British  West  Indies  the  sapote  is  called  mammee- 
sapota,  marmalade-plum,  and  marmalade-fruit.  In  the  French 
WTest  Indies  it  is  known  as  sapote  and  grosse  sapote.  In  Cuba  it 
is  called  mamey  Colorado  and,  less  commonly,  mamey  zapote. 
Throughout  its  native  area,  southern  Mexico  and  Central 
America,  it  is  known  in  Spanish  as  zapote  (from  the  Nahuatl  or 
Aztec  name  tzapotl)  and  this  name  is  used  also  in  Ecuador  and 
Colombia.  In  the  Philippines  the  term  is  chico-mamey.  The 
more  important  botanical  synonyms  are  :  Achras  mammosa,  L., 
Luruma  mammosa,  Gaertn.,  ViteUaria  mammosa,  Radlk.,  and 
Achradelpha  mammosa,  Cook.  The  name  mamey,  improperly 


342     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

applied  to  this  fruit,  results  in  its  being  confused  with  Mammea 
americana,  L. 

The  Indians  of  Central  America  commonly  eat  the  sapote 
out  of  hand,  but  it  is  occasionally  made  into  a  rich  preserve 
and  it  may  be  employed  in  other  ways.  In  Cuba  it  is  used  as  a 
"filler"  in  making  guava-cheese,  and  a  thick  jam,  called  crema 
de  mamey  Colorado,  is  also  prepared  from  it.  The  seed  is  an 
article  of  commerce  in  Central  America,  where  the  large  kernel 
is  roasted  and  used  to  mix  with  cacao  in  making  chocolate. 

The  tree  is  tropical  in  its  requirements.  In  Guatemala  it 
is  most  abundant  at  elevations  from  sea-level  to  2000  feet; 
at  3000  feet  it  is  still  quite  common,  but  at  4000  feet  it  is  rarely 
seen.  At  higher  elevations  it  is  injured  by  the  cold  and  makes 
very  slow  growth.  It  thrives  on  heavy  soils,  such  as  the  clays 
and  clay-loams  of  Guatemala.  It  is  believed  in  Florida  that 
the  plant  does  not  like  a  soil  which  is  rich  in  lime,  and  that  for 
this  reason  it  has  failed  to  succeed  at  Miami  and  other  points  in 
the  state  where  conditions  otherwise  seem  to  be  favorable. 
P.  W.  Reasoner  considered  it  to  be  as  frost-resistant  as  the 
sapodilla. 

Seedlings  start  bearing  when  seven  or  eight  years  old  if 
grown  under  favorable  conditions,  and  when  of  good  size  yield 
regularly  and  abundantly.  The  fruits  are  picked  when  mature, 
and  laid  away  in  a  cool  place  to  ripen,  which  requires  about  a 
week.  If  shipped  as  soon  as  picked  from  the  tree,  they  can  be 
sent  to  northern  markets  without  difficulty.  Sapotes  from  Cuba 
and  Central  America  are  often  seen  in  the  markets  of  Tampa 
and  New  Orleans.  The  season  of  ripening  extends  over  a 
period  of  two  or  three  months,  usually  beginning  about  August 
in  the  West  Indies  and  Central  America.  Differences  in  eleva- 
tion, and  consequently  in  climate  of  course  affect  the  time  of 
ripening. 

All  of  the  sapote  trees  in  tropical  America  are  seedlings. 
Neither  budding  nor  grafting  has  yet  been  used  with  this 


THE  SAPOTACEOUS   FRUITS  343 

species,  so  far  as  is  known.  The  seeds,  which  cannot  be  kept 
long,  germinate  more  readily  if  the  thick  husk  is  removed 
before  planting.  They  should  be  placed  in  sand  or  light  soil, 
laid  on  their  sides,  and  scarcely  covered.  When  the  young 
plants  are  six  or  eight  inches  high,  they  may  be  transferred 
to  four-  or  five-inch  pots.  Their  growth  is  rapid  at  first,  but 
much  slower  after  they  have  exhausted  the  food  reserves  stored 
in  the  large  seed.  It  is  probable  that  budding  will  prove  as 
successful  with  the  sapote  as  it  has  with  the  sapodilla.  Seed- 
lings differ  greatly  in  the  size,  shape,  and  quality  of  their  fruits. 
The  best  one  should  be  propagated  by  some  vegetative  means. 

THE  GREEN  SAPOTE  (Plate  XX) 
(Ccdocarpum  viride,  Pittier) 

While  greatly  superior  in  flavor  to  its  congener  the  sapote 
(C.  mammosum) ,  the  green  sapote  is  much  more  limited  in  its 
distribution.  It  is  common  in  the  Guatemalan  highlands  and 
is  found  also  in  Honduras  and  (rarely)  in  Costa  Rica.  Else- 
where it  is  not  known,  but  it  deserves  to  be  cultivated  through- 
out the  tropics. 

In  habit  and  general  appearance  the  tree  greatly  resembles 
the  sapote,  from  which  it  can  be  distinguished  (according  to 
Pittier)  "by  the  smaller  leaves,  downy  and  white  beneath, 
the  smaller  and  differently  shaped  sepals,  the  shorter  staminodes 
and  stamens,  the  latter  with  broadly  ovate  anthers,  and  above 
all  the  comparatively  small,  green,  and  thin-skinned  fruit  and 
the  smaller,  ovate  seed."  It  is  most  abundant  in  northern 
Guatemala  (the  Alta  Verapaz),  where  it  grows  usually  at 
elevations  of  4000  to  6000  feet.  Unlike  its  relative  the  sapote, 
it  does  not  thrive  in  the  hot  lowlands.  The  lower  limit  of  its 
cultivation  is  approximately  3000  feet,  the  upper  between  6000 
and  7000  feet. 

The  fruit,  which  is  known  in  Guatemala  as  injerto  (Spanish) 


344     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

and  yash-tul  (Kekchi,  green  sapote),  is  much  prized  by  the 
Indians  of  the  Verapaz.  The  flavor  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
sapote,  but  more  delicate,  and  the  flesh  is  finer  and  smoother 
in  texture.  The  largest  fruits  are  nearly  5  inches  long,  tur- 
binate  to  elliptic  in  outline,  and  brownish  green  to  pale 
yellowish  green  in  color;  the  skin  thin,  almost  membranous, 
and  easily  broken.  The  flesh  is  pale  red-brown  in  color, 
melting,  sweet,  and  somewhat  juicy.  The  seeds  are  commonly 
one  or  two,  elliptic  in  form,  and  about  2  inches  long.  Usually 
the  fruit  is  eaten  fresh,  but  in  some  parts  of  Guatemala  a  pre- 
serve is  prepared  from  it,  similar  to  that  made  from  the  sapote. 

The  tree  is  productive,  but  has  the  disadvantage  of  not  coming 
into  bearing  earlier  than  eight  or  ten  years  from  seed.  It  is 
not  systematically  cultivated,  but  is  met  with  in  dooryards 
and  around  cultivated  fields.  The  fruits  are  in  great  demand 
in  the  markets  of  Guatemalan  towns.  They  ripen  from  October 
or  November  (depending  on  elevation)  to  February.  When 
picked  from  the  tree  they  are  hard  and  can  be  carried  long 
distances  without  injury,  but  after  they  have  softened  and  are 
ready  for  eating  they  must  be  handled  carefully,  since  the  skin 
is  thin  and  easily  broken. 

This  species  has  been  planted  recently  in  California  and 
Florida.  It  is  more  likely  to  succeed  in  the  latter  state  than 
the  sapote,  since  it  is  somewhat  more  frost-resistant.  It  is 
doubtful,  however,  whether  it  will  survive  temperatures  below 
27°  or  28°  above  zero.  Seed-propagation  is  the  only  method 
which  has  been  employed  up  to  the  present  time. 

THE  STAR-APPLE  (Fig.  45) 
(Chrysophyllum  Cainito,  L.) 

In  Cuba,  Jamaica,  and  several  other  tropical  American 
countries,  the  star-apple  is  a  common  dooryard  tree  and  its 
fruit  is  held  in  much  the  same  estimation  as  the  sapote,  the 


THE  SAPOTACEOUS   FRUITS 


345 


sapodilla,  and  the  sugar-apple.  For  its  ornamental  value 
alone  it  merits  cultivation.  Charles  Kingsley,  in  his  brief 
account  of  West  Indian  fruits,  refers  to  the  beauty  of  this  plant. 
"And  what  is  the  next,"  he  asks,  after  mentioning  some  of  the 
trees  seen  on  one  of  his  rambles,  "like  an  evergreen  peach, 
shedding  from  the  under  side  of  every  leaf  a  golden  light,  — 
call  it  not  shade?  A  star-apple." 

On  the  deep  rich  soils  of  Cuba  the  tree  sometimes  reaches 
50  feet  in  height,  although  in  southern  Florida  it  rarely  exceeds 
30  feet.  The  leaves  are  oval  or  oblong,  about  4  inches  in  length, 
deep  green  and  glossy  above, 
and  golden-brown,  with  a  sheen 
like  that  of  satin,  beneath. 
The  flowers  are  small  and  in- 
conspicuous, purplish  white  in 
color.  The  fruit  is  commonly 
round,  sometimes  oblate,  and  2 
to  4  inches  in  diameter.  The 
surface  is  smooth,  somewhat 
glossy,  dull  purple  in  some  vari- 
eties, light  green  in  others.  On 
cutting  the  fruit  transversely, 
it  is  found  to  be  differentiated 
into  two  kinds  of  flesh  ;  directly 
under  the  thin  tenacious  skin  is  a  layer  of  soft,  somewhat  granu- 
lar flesh,  concolorous  with  the  skin,  and  not  very  juicy ;  inclosed 
by  this  are  eight  translucent  whitish  segments  in  which  the 
seeds  are  embedded.  When  the  fruit  is  halved  thus,  trans- 
versely, these  cut  segments  present  a  star-like  appearance, 
whence  the  common  name.  Both  kinds  of  flesh  are  sweet, 
entirely  lacking  in  acidity,  with  the  characteristic  sapotaceous 
flavor.  Normally  there  is  one  seed  in  each  segment,  but  fre- 
quently several  are  aborted,  leaving  three  to  five  in  the  fruit. 
They  are  ovate  to  elliptic  in  outline,  flattened,  J  inch  long, 


FIG.  45.  The  star-apple  (Chryso- 
phyttum  Cainito),  a  popular  fruit  in 
Cuba.  It  is  green  or  purple  in  color, 
and  the  flesh  is  melting,  sweet,  and 
pleasantly  flavored.  (X  about  J) 


346     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

hard,  brown,  and  glossy.  The  appearance  of  a  halved  star- 
apple  is  strikingly  suggestive  of  that  of  the  mangosteen. 

The  fruit  is  usually  eaten  fresh.  In  Jamaica  it  is  sometimes 
made  into  preserves,  and  also  (according  to  P.  W.  Reasoner) 
into  a  mixture  somewhat  cryptically  called  "matrimony," 
which  is  prepared  by  scooping  out  the  inside  pulp  and  adding 
it  to  a  glass  of  sour  orange  juice.  An  analysis  made  in  Hawaii 
by  Alice  R.  Thompson  shows  the  ripe  fruit  to  contain :  Total 
solids  11.47  per  cent,  ash  0.39,  acids  0.12,  protein  2.33,  total 
sugars  4.40,  fat  1.38,  and  fiber  0.85. 

The  tree  is  wild  in  the  West  Indies  and  in  Central  America. 
It  is  cultivated  in  the  same  area  and  also  in  South  America, 
Mexico,  Florida,  and  to  a  limited  extent  in  Hawaii  and  a  few 
other  countries.  According  to  H.  F.  Macmillan  it  was  intro- 
duced into  Ceylon  in  1802,  but  it  is  not  commonly  grown  any- 
where in  the  Orient,  so  far  as  is  known.  In  the  English  colonies 
it  is  known  almost  invariably  as  star-apple;  in  the  French 
colonies  (and  sometimes  in  Cuba)  it  is  called  caimite;  while  in 
most  Spanish-speaking  countries  the  word  is  caimito. 

The  plant  is  tropical  in  its  requirements.  P.  W.  Reasoner 
notes :  "  When  small,  the  tree  is  not  apt  to  sprout  up  again  if 
killed  back  by  frost,  and  it  is  perhaps  somewhat  more  tender 
than  the  sapodilla."  Old  trees  are  to  be  found  at  Miami  and 
Palm  Beach,  Florida,  which  proves  that  the  species  is  suffi- 
ciently hardy  to  grow  in  the  southern  part  of  that  state.  So  far 
as  is  known,  no  plants  have  ever  grown  to  fruiting  size  in  Cali- 
fornia, although  they  have  been  planted  in  the  most  protected 
situations.  The  star-apple  likes  a  humid  atmosphere  with 
relatively  high  temperatures  throughout  the  year.  Apparently 
it  is  not  particular  in  regard  to  soil ;  it  grows  well  both  on  the 
shallow  sandy  soils  of  southeastern  Florida  and  on  the  deep  clay 
loams  of  Cuba. 

Propagation  is  usually  by  seed.  Since  there  is  much  differ- 
ence among  seedlings,  however,  it  will  be  desirable  to  employ 


THE  SAPOTACEOUS   FRUITS  347 

some  asexual  means  of  propagation  in  order  to  perpetuate  as 
varieties  any  choice  kinds  which  originate.  Budding  will 
probably  prove  satisfactory.  It  is  reported  that  cuttings  can 
be  grown,  if  they  are  made  from  well-ripened  shoots  and  placed 
over  strong  moist  heat.  Seeds  retain  their  viability  for  several 
months,  are  easily  transported  through  the  mails,  and  should 
be  sown  in  light  sandy  loam. 

Some  trees  yield  heavy  crops  of  fruit,  •  while  many  others 
are  shy  bearers.  The  ripening  season  in  the  West  Indies  is 
April  and  May.  The  fruits  are  not  good  unless  allowed  to  re- 
main on  the  tree  until  fully  ripe;  if  picked  when  immature 
they  are  astringent  and  contain  a  sticky  white  latex. 

Two  races  are  common,  one  green-fruited  and  the  other 
purple-fruited.  They  are  not  known  to  differ  in  flavor  or  other 
characteristics  except  color. 

THE  CANISTEL 
(Lucuma  nervosa,  A.  DC.) 

Opinions  differ  regarding  the  value  of  the  canistel.  By  some 
it  is  considered  a  delicious  fruit ;  others  find  it  too  sweet  and  its 
musky  flavor  unpleasant.  It  is  popular  among  residents  of  the 
Florida  Keys  and  in  Cuba.  In  the  opinion  of  the  author  it  is 
certainly  not  so  good  as  the  green  sapote,  the  star-apple,  or  the 
abiu. 

The  tree,  which  reaches  15  to  25  feet  in  height,  is  commonly 
slender  in  habit,  but  sometimes  broad  and  stiffly  erect.  It  is  of 
handsome  appearance  and  for  this  reason  is  often  planted  in 
dooryards.  The  leaves  are  oblong-obovate  to  oblanceolate 
in  outline,  4  to  8  inches  long,  glabrous,  and  bright  green  in 
color.  The  small  flowers  are  produced  upon  the  young  wood 
in  clusters  of  two  to  five.  The  fruit  is  round  to  ovoid  in  form, 
frequently  pointed  at  the  apex,  orange-yellow  and  2  to  4 
inches  long.  The  skin  is  membranous  and  the  bright  orange 


348     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

flesh  soft  and  mealy  in  texture,  resembling  in  appearance  the 
yolk  of  a  hard-boiled  egg.  The  flavor  is  rich  and  so  sweet 
as  almost  to  be  cloying,  and  is  somewhat  musky  in  char- 
acter. The  seeds,  usually  two  or  three  in  number  (although 
the  ovary  is  five-celled),  are  oval,  about  an  inch  long,  hard, 
dark  brown,  and  shining,  except  on  the  pale  brown  ventral 
surface. 

So  far  as  is  known,  the  canistel  is  not  cultivated  commercially 
in  any  country,  but  it  is  grown  as  a  garden  tree  in  Cuba  and 
southern  Florida.  The  Cuban  name  canistel  is  presumably 
from  the  Maya  kaniste;  in  Florida  the  names  ti-es  and  egg- 
fruit  are  generally  used.  Botanically  the  species  is  often  listed 
as  Lucuma  rivicola  var.  angustifolia,  Miq. 

The  fruit,  which  in  Florida  matures  from  December  to  March, 
is  eaten  fresh.  It  is  taken  from  the  tree  when  mature  and  laid 
in  the  house  to  complete  its  ripening.  Within  three  or  four 
days  it  is  soft  and  ready  for  eating. 

The  tree  is  fully  as  hardy  as  the  sapodilla,  and  of  similar 
cultural  requirements.  It  grows  in  south  Florida  on  the  Keys 
and  as  far  north  as  Palm  Beach  on  the  east  coast  and  Punta 
Gorda  on  the  west  coast.  P.  W.  Reasoner  wrote  in  1887 : 
"Previous  to  the  ' freeze'  a  specimen  had  been  growing  in 
Tampa  for  many  years,  which,  after  many  discouragements  by 
frost,  finally  produced  fruit  a  few  years  ago."  So  far  as  known, 
the  tree  has  never  grown  to  fruiting  size  in  California.  In  regard 
to  soil  it  does  not  seem  to  be  particular;  it  grows  well  on  the 
heavy  clay  lands  of  Cuba  and  upon  some  of  the  poorest  and  most 
shallow  soils  of  southern  Florida.  It  shares  with  the  sapodilla 
the  ability  to  grow  in  apparently  very  unfavorable  situations 
on  the  Florida  Keys. 

Propagation  is  usually  by  seed,  but  budding  will  doubtless 
prove  successful.  The  husks  should  be  removed  from  the 
seeds  before  they  are  planted.  Though  not  a  rapid  grower, 
the  tree  comes  into  bearing  when  three  to  five  years  old. 


THE  SAPOTACEOUS   FRUITS 


349 


While  some  trees  produce  fruit  abundantly,  others  are  poor 
bearers.  As  usual,  there  is  much  variation  also  in  the  size 
and  quality  of  the  fruits  borne  by  different  seedlings. 

THE  ABIU  (Fig.  46) 
(Pouteria  Caimito,  Radlk.) 

Although  the  abiu  is  one  of  the  best  of  the  sapotaceous  fruits, 
it  is  not  so  widely  cultivated  as  several  other  species.  It 
greatly  resembles  the  canistel  in  habit  of 
growth  and  in  foliage,  but  is  easily  distin- 
guished from  it  by  its  light  yellow  fruit  with 
white  flesh.  The  tree  reaches  15  or  20  feet 
in  height.  The  leaves  are  obovate  to  lanceo- 
late in  outline,  4  to  8  inches  long,  acute, 
glabrous,  and  bright  green.  The  fruit  is 
ovate-elliptic  (occasionally  almost  round) 
in  form,  2  to  4  inches  long,  and  bright 
yellow  in  color,  with  skin  thick  and  tough. 
Surrounding  the  two  or  three  large  oblong 
seeds  is  the  translucent  flesh,  which  in  flavor 
resembles  the  sapodilla  but  is  of  different 
texture.  Until  fully  ripe  it  contains  a  milky 
latex  which  coagulates  on  exposure  to  the  air 
and  sticks  to  the  lips  in  a  troublesome 
manner. 

Alphonse  DeCandolle  says  of  this  species : 
"  It  has  been  transported  from  Peru,  where 
it  is  cultivated,  to  Ega  on  the  Amazon  river, 
and  to  Para,  where  it  is  commonly  called  abi 
or  abiu.  Ruiz  and  Pa  von  say  it  is  wild  in 
the  warm  regions  of  Peru,  and  at  the  foot  of  the  Andes." 
Jacques  Huber  reports  that  its  culture  is  now  extensive  at  Para 
and  elsewhere  in  the  Amazon  Valley.  It  is  a  common  fruit 


FIG.  46.  The  abiu 
(Pouleria  Caimito), 
one  of  the  best  of  the 
sapotaceous  fruits. 
It  is  cultivated  in 
Peru  and  Brazil, 
rarely  elsewhere. 
The  skin  is  yellow, 
the  flesh  whitish, 
melting,  and  sweet. 
(X  £) 


350     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

at  Bahia  and  Rio  de  Janeiro,  but  outside  of  Brazil  and  Peru 
is  little  known.  Recently  it  has  been  introduced  into  the 
United  States,  and  should  prove  sufficiently  hardy  for  cultiva- 
tion in  southern  Florida,  although  probably  it  is  too  tender 
for  any  part  of  California.  From  its  abundance  in  Para  it  can 
be  judged  that  it  delights  in  a  moist  climate,  uniformly  warm 
throughout  the  year.  It  does  well  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  however, 
where  the  weather  is  cool  during  part  of  the  year. 

Lucuma  Caimito,  Roem.,  is  a  synonym  of  Pouteria  Caimito, 
Radlk.  Because  of  its  specific  name  caimito,  this  plant  is 
sometimes  confused  with  the  West  Indian  ChrysopJiyllum 
Cainito  (star-apple,  see  above),  which  is  commonly  known  in 
Spanish  as  caimito.  According  to  Pittier,  its  name  in  the  Cauca 
Valley  of  Colombia  is  caimo. 

The  tree's  cultural  requirements  are  similar  to  those  of  the 
canistel.  The  Brazilians  say  that  a  soil  rich  in  humus  is  the 
most  suitable.  Propagation  is  usually  by  seeds,  but  such  vege- 
tative means  as  budding  and  grafting  should  be  successful. 
Huber  reports  that  there  are  many  seedling  varieties  at  Para, 
differing  in  the  form  and  size  of  the  leaves  as  well  as  in  the  fruits. 
The  latter  are  sometimes  round,  sometimes  elongated ;  in  some 
the  flesh  is  firm  and  in  others  soft  and  mucilaginous ;  some  are 
insipid  in  flavor  while  others  are  very  sweet  and  pleasant. 

THE  YELLOW  SAPOTE 
(Liwuma  salicifolia,  HBK.) 

Both  in  foliage  and  fruit  the  yellow  sapote  closely  resembles 
the  canistel,  but  its  fruit  is,  perhaps,  slightly  the  better  of  the 
two.  It  is  a  small  tree,  attaining  25  feet  in  height,  and  usually 
of  slender  erect  growth.  The  leaves  are  lanceolate,  acute  at 
the  base  and  obtuse  at  the  tip,  4  to  7  inches  long,  and  light  green 
in  color.  The  small  whitish  or  greenish  flowers  are  solitary  or 
in  pairs  in  the  leaf-axils.  The  fruit,  commonly  slender  and 


PLATE  XVIII.     Foliage  and  fruits  of  the  akee  (Blighia  sapida). 


THE  SAPOTACEOUS   FRUITS  351 

extended  into  a  long  point  at  the  apex,  is  4  to  5  inches  long,  and 
orange-yellow  in  color.  The  skin  is  thin  and  delicate  and  the 
pulp  soft  and  mealy,  of  the  consistency  and  color  of  the  yolk 
of  a  hard-boiled  egg.  In  flavor  it  resembles  the  canistel. 
The  seed  is  slender,  nearly  2  inches  long,  light  brown  and  glossy 
except  on  the  whitish  ventral  surface. 

The  yellow  sapote  is  most  abundant  in  Mexico,  but  according 
to  Pittier  is  found  also  in  Panama  and  Costa  Rica.  The 
common  names  in  Mexico  are  zapote  borracho  and  zapote 
amarillo.  The  species  is  cultivated  in  that  country  from  sea- 
level  to  elevations  of  6000  feet.  The  fruit,  which  is  eaten  fresh, 
ripens  in  autumn  and  winter  and  is  often  seen  in  the  markets. 

While  tropical  in  its  requirements,  the  tree  can  be  grown  in 
regions  which  are  subject  to  cool  weather  in  part  of  the  year. 
It  is  doubtful,  however,  whether  it  will  stand  more  frost  than 
its  congener  the  canistel.  In  Mexico  it  grows  on  both  light  and 
heavy  soils  and  in  regions  which  are  moist  as  well  as  in  those 
which  are  comparatively  dry.  It  has  been  propagated  only 
by  seed,  but  should  lend  itself  to  bud-propagation.  As  is 
common  the  fruits  of  different  seedlings  vary  in  form,  size, 
and  other  characteristics. 

THE  LTTCMO 
(Lucuma  obovata,  HBK.) 

Pittier  has  recently  called  attention  to  this  species,  which  has 
been  cultivated  in  Peru  since  ancient  times.  It  is  a  tree  25 
to  35  feet  high,  with  a  dense  rounded  crown.  The  leaves, 
which  are  in  bunches  at  the  ends  of  the  branchlets,  are  elliptic- 
ovate  in  outline,  acute  at  the  base,  dark  green  above  and  paler 
or  rusty  below.  The  flowers  are  solitary  or  sometimes  two 
or  three  together  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  The  fruit  is  round 
or  ovate  in  form,  about  3  inches  long,  green  externally,  with 
yellow  flesh  of  mealy  texture.  The  seeds  are  one  to  five  in 


352     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

number  (commonly  two),  flattened,  and  the  size  of  chestnuts. 
The  tree  is  thought  to  be  a  native  of  the  maritime  provinces 
of  Chile  and  Peru.  A  few  cultivated  specimens  have  been 
seen  in  Costa  Rica,  but  the  species  is  not  commonly  grown 
outside  its  native  region.  It  flowers  and  fruits  throughout 
the  year.  The  fruits  must  be  stored  in  straw  or  chaff  for 
several  days  after  gathering  before  they  are  ready  for  eating. 
This  species  is  believed  to  be  represented  by  casts  found  in 
the  graves  of  the  ancient  Peruvians.  From  the  common 
name  lucmo  (sometimes  lucumo)  the  generic  name  Lucuma  is 
taken.  * 


CHAPTER  XII 
THE   KAKI  AND  ITS  RELATIVES 

THE  genus  Diospyros  comprises  about  200  species,  mostly 
tropical  and  subtropical.  One  of  them  is  the  native  persimmon 
(D.  rirginiana),  which  reaches  as  far  north  as  Connecticut. 
The  oriental  kinds  are  becoming  prominent  fruits  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  eastern  United  States.  Diospyros  is  the  largest 
genus  of  the  Ebony  family,  which  is  closely  allied  to  Sapotacese. 
This  genus  and  others  furnish  the  ebony  wood  of  commerce. 

THE  KAKI  OR  JAPANESE  PERSIMMON  (Plate  XXI) 
(Diospyros  Kaki,  L.  f.) 

The  Japanese,  who  cultivate  more  than  800  varieties  of  the 
kaki,  consider  it  one  of  their  best  fruits.  The  Chinese  also 
value  it  highly  and  devote  large  areas  to  its  production.  Al- 
though it  has  been  grown  on  a  small  scale  in  southern  France 
for  nearly  a  century,  it  is  not  believed  to  have  reached  the 
United  States  until  the  time  of  Commodore  Perry's  visit  to 
Japan  in  1856,  and  it  was  only  in  1870  (or  thereabouts)  that 
grafted  trees  of  superior  varieties  were  first  brought  to  this 
country. 

Much  attention  has  recently  been  devoted  to  the  kaki,  and 
it  seems  probable  that  it  will  assume  an  important  position 
among  the  orchard-fruits  of  the  cotton-belt  and  of  California. 
If  it  does  so,  credit  for  its  establishment  on  such  a  basis  will 
be  due  largely  to  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
as  having  introduced  into  this  country  the  best  Chinese  and 
2A  353 


354     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

Japanese  sorts,  and  to  H.  H.  Hume  of  Florida  for  his  investi- 
gations of  cultural  problems.  The  name  of  Frank  N.  Meyer, 
late  agricultural  explorer  for  the  Department  of  Agriculture, 
will  be  remembered  by  horticulturists  in  connection  with  the 
introduction  of  Chinese  varieties. 

The  kaki  is  a  deciduous  tree  growing  up  to  40  feet  in  height 
(though  there  are  dwarf  varieties  which  remain  smaller  than 
this),  and  having  usually  a  round  open  crown.  The  leaves 
are  ovate-elliptic,  oblong-ovate,  or  even  obovate  in  outline, 
acuminate  at  the  apex,  glabrous  above  and  finely  pubescent 
beneath,  and  3  to  7  inches  long.  While  it  has  usually  been 
supposed  that  the  kaki  is  dioecious,  or  rarely  polygamous, 
Hume  l  has  shown  that  a  single  tree  may  produce  three  kinds  of 
flowers,  perfect,  staminate,  and  pistillate,  in  varying  combina- 
tions. All  of  these  are  borne  upon  the  current  season's  growth 
and  open  shortly  after  the  shoots  and  leaves  are  developed. 
Staminate  flowers  are  borne  in  three-flower  cymes  in  the  leaf- 
axils  ;  the  calyx  and  corolla  are  four-lobed  and  the  latter  has 
sixteen  to  twenty-four  stamens  inserted  upon  it  in  two  rows. 
The  pistillate  flowers  are  solitary  and  axillary  and  have  a  large 
leaf-like  calyx,  a  four-parted  light  yellow  corolla,  eight  abortive 
stamens,  and  a  flattened  or  globose,  eight-celled  ovary  sur- 
mounted by  a  short  four-parted  style  and  much-branched 
stigma.  Perfect  flowers  are  intermediate  in  character  between 
the  staminate  and  the  pistillate,  and  are  most  commonly  asso- 
ciated with  the  former.  Hume  says:  "Up  to  this  time  they 
have  not  been  discovered  on  any  varieties  of  the  fixed  pistillate- 
flowering  type.  In  other  words,  it  appears  that  the  perfect 
flowers  are  a  development  from  the  staminate  form  and  not 
from  the  pistillate  form."  It  may  be  observed  that  the  kaki 
corresponds  in  this  respect  to  the  papaya,  in  which  perfect 
flowers  are  sometimes  developed  on  trees  which  are  normally 
staminate  but  never  on  those  which  are  pistillate. 

1  Trans.  St.  Louis  Acad.  Sci.,  XXII,  5,  1913. 


THE   KAKI   AND  ITS  RELATIVES  355 

The  fruit  is  oblate  to  slender  conic  in  form,  and  from  1  to 
3  inches  in  diameter.  It  has  a  thin  membranous  skin  orange- 
yellow  to  reddish  orange  in  color;  soft  (sometimes  almost 
liquid)  orange-colored  pulp  of  sweet  and  pleasant  flavor;  and 
occasionally  as  many  as  eight  elliptic,  flattened,  dark  brown 
seeds,  although  there  are  frequently  not  more  than  half  that 
number,  and  seedless  fruits  are  of  common  occurrence. 

The  kaki  was  formerly  thought  a  native  of  Japan,  but  it  is 
now  understood  that  it  was  originally  confined  to  China,  whence 
it  was  carried  to  Japan  several  centuries  ago.  Hume  believes 
that  the  cultivated  kakis  may  be  derived  from  more  than  one 
wild  species.  This  theory  was  suggested  by  the  different 
reactions  of  certain  varieties  to  the  stimulus  of  pollination. 
After  describing  these  reactions  1  he  asks : 

"Why  is  it  that  D.  kaki  presents  these  peculiar  character- 
istics? Why  is  it,  for  instance,  that  Tsuru  is  always  light 
fleshed  whether  the  fruit  contains  seeds  or  not,  while  Yemon 
is  light  fleshed  when  seedless  and  dark  fleshed  when  seedy  ?  Is 
it  not  likely  that  D.  kaki  is  not  a  true  species  but  rather  a 
mixture  of  two  or  more  species,  hybridized  and  grown  under 
cultivation  for  centuries?  Is  it  not  possible  that  the  present 
cultivated  varieties  known  under  the  name  of  D.  kaki  are 
derived  from  two  distinct  species,  one  bearing  dark  fleshed 
fruit  and  the  other  light  fleshed  fruit?  ...  In  shape  and 
peculiarities  of  fruit,  color  and  characteristics  of  bark,  size  and 
shape  of  leaves,  habit  of  growth  and  size  of  tree,  they  vary 
much  more  than  any  of  our  common  fruits  usually  regarded  as 
being  derived  from  a  single  species." 

From  Japan  the  kaki  has  been  carried  around  the  world.  Its 
cultivation  in  France  has  already  been  mentioned ;  it  is  limited 
principally  to  the  Cote  d'Azur  (the  Riviera)  and  Provence.  On 
the  opposite  shore  of  the  Mediterranean,  in  Algeria,  it  is  grown 
to  a  limited  extent.  It  has  never  been  cultivated  widely  in 
1  Journal  of  Heredity,  Sept.,  1914. 


356     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

India,  but  A.  C.  Hartless  reports  recently  that  certain  vari- 
eties have  proved  successful  at  Dehra  Dun  and  elsewhere, 
and  grafted  plants  are  being  disseminated  from  the  Botanical 
Garden  at  Saharanpur.  In  Queensland,  where  it  is  said  to 
have  been  introduced  less  than  forty  years  ago,  it  is  meeting 
with  favor  but  is  not  yet  extensively  grown.  In  the  United 
States  it  has  been  planted  chiefly  in  Florida,  Louisiana,  and 
California. 

The  name  kaki,  which  is  applied  to  this  fruit  in  Japan, 
has  become  current  in  the  United  States  and  in  southern 
France.  Japanese  persimmon  and  occasionally  date-plum 
and  Chinese  date-plum  are  terms  used  in  the  United  States, 
and  plaquemine  in  France.  The  Chinese  name  is  shi  tze. 
Botanically  the  cultivated  kakis  are  commonly  grouped  to- 
gether under  the  name  Diospyros  Kaki,  L.  f.,  of  which  D. 
chinensis,  Blume,  D.  Schitse,  Bunge,  and  D.  Roxburghii, 
Carr.,  are  considered  synonyms.  French  botanists  have  made 
botanical  varieties  or  even  species  out  of  some  of  the  forms 
which  are  elsewhere  held  to  be  mere  horticultural  varieties, 
e.g.,  costata. 

In  the  United  States  the  kaki  is  usually  sold  as  a  fresh  fruit, 
to  be  eaten  out  of  hand.  In  Japan  certain  varieties  are  used 
extensively  for  drying,  the  product  somewhat  resembling  dried 
figs  in  character  and  being  delicious.  "The  method  of  drying, " 
writes  George  C.  Roeding,  "is  simple.  The  skin  is  pared  off 
and  the  fruits  are  suspended  by  the  stems,  tying  them  with 
string  to  a  rope  or  stick  and  exposing  them  to  the  sun.  They 
gradually  lose  their  original  form,  turn  quite  dark  and  are 
covered  with  sugar  crystals.  .  .  .  Fruit  should  be  picked 
for  drying  when  yellow  and  firm." 

Methods  of  processing  the  mature  fruit,  so  as  to  remove  its 
astringency,  are  discussed  on  a  later  page.  The  chemical  com- 
position of  five  varieties  is  shown  in  the  following  table,  from 
analyses  made  by  H.  C.  Gore : 


THE   KAKI   AND   ITS   RELATIVES  357 

TABLE  VI.  COMPOSITION  OF  THE  KAKI 


VARIETY 

TOTAL 
SOLIDS 

ASH 

PROTEIN 

TOTAL 
SUGARS 

TANNIN 

Hachiya      .     .     . 

25.06 

0.49 

0.64 

17.71 

0.88 

Tane-nashi  .     .     . 

18.52 

0.39 

0.42 

14.59 

0.13 

Triumph     .     .     . 

20.82 

0.41 

0.40 

14.74 

1.39 

Tsuru     .... 

21.08 

0.46 

0.61 

14.46 

1.54 

Zengi      .... 

21.83 

0.49 

0.73 

14.72 

0.41 

Cultivation. 

The  kaki  is  distinctly  a  subtropical  fruit  and  thus  is  not 
successful  in  the  moist  tropical  lowlands,  although  there  are 
many  elevated  valleys  and  plateaux  in  the  tropics  where  it  can 
be  grown.  Its  culture  in  the  United  States  is  limited  to  regions 
which  are  suitable  for  the  fig.  Some  varieties  have  survived 
temperatures  as  low  as  zero,  while  others  are  more  tender. 
L.  H.  Bailey  writes:  "Many  seedlings  have  been  produced 
which  seem  to  have  increased  frost-resisting  powers.  In- 
stances are  reported  in  which  some  of  these  trees  have  with- 
stood the  winters  of  east  Tennessee.  By  successive  sowing  of 
seeds  from  these  hardier  seedlings  we  may  look  for  a  race  of 
trees  which  will  be  adapted  to  the  middle  sections  of  the  United 
States.  There  is  a  probability,  also,  that  importations  from 
the  north  of  China  and  Japan  may  considerably  extend  the 
range  northward  in  this  country.  Some  varieties  have  suc- 
ceeded in  central  Virginia  and  Kentucky." 

Regarding  the  moisture  requirements  of  the  kaki,  experience 
indicates  that  it  does  not  need  a  high  degree  of  atmospheric 
humidity  if  it  is  supplied  with  plenty  of  water  at  the  root. 
T.  Ikeda  says  of  the  trees  in  Japan :  "  They  are  very  water- 
loving  in  habit  and  require  a  constant  and  sufficient  supply 
of  soil  water."  The  behavior  of  the  species  in  California  has 


358     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

shown  that  it  is  entirely  successful  in  a  semi-arid  climate, 
while  experience  in  other  regions  indicates  that  it  can  be  grown 
equally  well  in  a  region  of  reasonably  heavy  rainfall.  In  parts 
of  India  where  the  precipitation  is  extremely  heavy  it  has  not 
done  well. 

In  soil  requirements  the  kaki  is  not  exacting.  Emile  Sauvaigo, 
one  of  the  best  French  authorities,  says :  "  It  likes  a  deep, 
reasonably  heavy,  well-drained  soil,  and  it  does  well  on  clays, 
when  they  are  not  too  compact";  and  Ikeda  notes  that  the 
yield  is  larger,  and  the  color  and  quality  of  the  fruit  better, 
when  the  trees  are  planted  on  heavy  but  well-drained  loams. 
In  California  it  has  been  observed  that  they  make  larger  growth 
on  heavy  than  on  thin  sandy  soils,  which  would,  of  course, 
be  expected.  Satisfactory  results  are  obtained  in  Florida 
on  light  sandy  loams,  particularly  when  they  are  moist;  in 
fact,  it  seems  difficult  to  give  the  plant  too  moist  a  situation, 
provided  the  drainage  is  good. 

Florida  nurserymen  advise  that  the  land  on  which  kakis  are 
to  be  planted  be  prepared  in  advance  by  growing  a  crop  of 
cowpeas  or  velvet-beans  and  plowing  them  under  to  enrich  the 
soil.  Planting  may  be  done  in  the  lower  South  between  Novem- 
ber 15  and  March  1,  but  preference  is  given  to  the  period  from 
December  1  to  February  1.  The  trees  should  be  spaced  18  or 
20  feet  apart  (134  or  108  trees  to  the  acre).  As  much  as  24 
feet  is  considered  a  desirable  distance  in  California.  The  roots 
should  not  be  allowed  to  dry  out  while  the  trees  are  being  set. 
The  tops  should  be  cut  back  to  2  or  2£  feet  on  plants  which 
have  not  large  stems.  Roeding  says:  "The  tap-root  should 
be  cut  back  to  18  inches,  and  fresh  cuts  made  on  all  the  fibrous 
roots.  Afterthe  trees  areset,head  them  back  to  ISinches.  The 
first  winter  thin  out  the  branches,  not  leaving  more  than  four 
to  form  the  head  of  the  tree.  Cut  these  back  at  least  one-half. 
In  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  years  pruning  of  the  tree  should 
be  continued  to  fashion  it  into  the  typical  goblet  form." 


THE   KAKI   AND  ITS   RELATIVES  359 

Frequent  and  thorough  cultivation  of  the  grove  during  the 
spring  and  early  summer  is  recommended  for  Florida.  Culti- 
vation should  be  discontinued  about  the  middle  of  July  and  a 
cover-crop  then  planted.  This  may  be  cowpeas,  velvet-beans, 
beggar  weed,  or  a  natural  growth  of  weeds  may  be  allowed 
to  develop.  Commercial  fertilizers  are  used  to  advantage. 

F.  H.  Burnette  1  writes  as  follows  on  this  subject : 

"  Good  clean  culture  is  all  that  is  required,  the  same  that  is  given 
in  any  well-cared-for  fruit  orchard.  In  our  heavy  lands,  or  on  soils 
similar  in  character  to  the  soils  of  the  bluff  lands  of  Louisiana,  sodding- 
over  should  never  be  allowed,  if  good  crops  are  desired.  Any  good 
complete  manure  may  be  used.  A  good  crop  of  cow-peas  turned 
under  every  two  or  three  years  will  be  highly  beneficial. 

"  During  the  first  three  years  the  growth  of  the  tree  should  be 
watched  in  order  to  build  a  symmetrical,  upright  tree.  This  is  not 
easy,  for  some  of  the  varieties  spread  too  much,  and  the  leading  up- 
right branches  are  often  overloaded  and  become  broken  easily,  or  are 
headed  back  by  careless  removal  of  the  fruit.  Ordinarily,  after  they 
begin  to  bear,  there  is  little  need  of  pruning.  The  tendency  to  over- 
bear is  so  strong  that  new  wood  is  not  produced  in  abundance,  and 
the  tree  becomes  dwarf -like.  Systematic  thinning  of  the  fruit  is  neces- 
sary to  control  this,  as  it  will  not  do  to  leave  the  thinning  to  natural 
causes,  and  depend  upon  the  tree  to  throw  off  all  the  fruit  it  cannot 
well  take  care  of.  The  weakened  condition  from  overbearing  results 
in  a  sickly  tree  which  readily  becomes  a  prey  to  diseases  and  insects, 
and  it  requires  a  careful  observer  to  train  his  tree  and  thin  the  fruit 
to  the  proper  amount. " 

Propagation. 

It  has  long  been  known,  especially  in  Florida,  that  some 
varieties  flower  profusely  but  fail  to  develop  any  fruits.  In 
other  instances,  though  good  crops  are  produced  one  season, 
yet  the  following  year  there  is  no  fruit,  even  though  climatic 
conditions  may  appear  to  be  identical.  This  peculiar  behavior 
was  not  understood  until  Hume  showed  that  it  was  due  to 
faulty  pollination.  In  the  Journal  of  Heredity  for  March,  1914, 
he  writes : 

1  Bull.  99,  La.  Exp.  Sta. 


360     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

"  It  was  not  until  1909  that  attention  was  called  to  the  true  cause 
of  barrenness  in  D.  kaki,  and  the  year  following  the  cause  of  sporadic 
fruitfulness  was  learned.  It  was  known  years  before  to  a  few  that 
the  flowers  of  D.  kaki  are  of  two  kinds,  pistillate  and  staminate,  but 
that  this  fact  had  any  practical  bearing  on  the  problem  of  unfruit- 
fulness  did  not  seem  to  occur  to  anyone.  More  recently  the  existence 
of  perfect  flowers,  i.e.,  those  containing  both  stamens  and  pistils,  was 
brought  to  light.  These  flowers  have  no  practical  bearing  on  the 
problem,  as  they  are  rare,  and  from  some  cause  or  other  not  yet  clearly 
understood,  their  ovaries  very  seldom  develop  into  mature  fruit. 
Since  1909,  the  results  of  more  than  twenty  thousand  hand  pollina- 
tions have  fairly  demonstrated  that  pollination  will  cause  fruit  to  set 
and  grow  to  maturity,  when  without  it  no  fruit  would  be  produced. 

"  The  fruitfulness  of  certain  trees  or  groups  of  trees  in  some  seasons 
and  not  in  others,  even  when  pistillate  flowers  were  present  in  goodly 
numbers  each  season,  can  now  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  there 
are  certain  horticultural  varieties  of  D.  kaki  which  produce  staminate 
flowers  at  irregular  intervals.  They  may  be  found  on  certain  trees 
one  season  and  not  the  next.  Many  seasons  may  elapse  before  they 
appear  again.  It  may  even  happen  that  never  again  are  they  pro- 
duced, or  they  may  be  produced  every  other  season.  Many  com- 
binations of  intervals  or  skips  in  the  production  of  staminate  flowers 
are  possible  and  probable.  A  number  of  them  have  been  observed 
and  noted  with  references  to  particular  trees.  The  staminate  flowers, 
when  they  occur  on  these  trees,  are  abundantly  supplied  with  pollen 
and  fertilize  not  only  pistillate  flowers  on  the  same  trees,  but  through 
the  agency  of  insects  the  flowers  of  many  trees  surrounding  them." 

It  was  evident  to  Hume,  therefore,  that  a  variety  was  needed 
which  could  be  depended  on  for  the  production  of  pollen  to 
fertilize  the  flowers  of  trees  which  lacked  the  male  element. 
The  search  for  such  a  variety  brought  several  to  light,  and  one 
of  them,  the  Gailey,  is  now  recommended  for  planting  as  a 
pollinizer.  By  setting  one  of  these  trees  to  seven  or  eight  of 
other  kinds,  productiveness  is  insured.  Hume  continues : 

"  It  must  be  emphasized  that  the  behavior  of  D.  kaki  in  its  relation 
to  pollination,  or  of  any  other  fruit  for  the  matter  of  that,  in  any  one 
locality,  is  no  index  to  its  behavior  under  any  other  set  of  conditions. 
Even  though  the  conditions  may  appear  to  be  the  same,  there  are 
differences  which  we  are  too  dull  to  detect  or  too  ignorant  to  under- 
stand, but  which  nevertheless  operate  on  the  trees  and  influence  the 
results.  It  is  a  matter  of  observation  that  under  certain  local  seasonal 


THE   KAKI   AND   ITS   RELATIVES  361 

and  climatic  conditions  some  varieties  of  D.  kaki  will  set  good  crops 
of  fruit  without  pollination  (seedless  of  course)  while  under  another 
set  of  conditions  they  do  not  do  so.  One  season  they  may  bloom  freely 
and  set  all  the  fruit  the  trees  should  carry  and  with  an  equal  amount 
of  bloom  in  another  season  the  same  trees  may  bring  no  fruit  to 
maturity. 

"  To  sum  up  conditions  as  they  are  at  present  in  the  Lower  South, 
and  based  on  numerous  observations  extending  over  more  than  a 
decade,  it  is  a  fact  that  trees  of  all  varieties  of  D.  kaki,  in  good  health 
and  which  bloom  under  normal  weather  conditions,  can  be  depended 
upon  to  bear  good  crops  if  pollinated  and  it  is  equally  true  (a  few 
varieties  only  excepted)  that  they  will  not  do  so  if  pollen  is  not  pro- 
vided. In  the  last  two  seasons  it  has  been  amply  demonstrated  that 
all  that  is  necessary  is  to  have  staminate  flowering  trees  in  proximity 
to  the  pistillate  ones  and  bees,  wasps,  flies  and  other  insects  will  take 
care  of  the  problem  according  to  nature's  own  plan. 

"What  is  the  owner  of  an  orchard  already  planted  to  do  if  he 
desires  to  place  pollinizers  in  his  orchard?  It  is  quite  easy  to  bud 
over  branches  here  and  there  in  properly  placed  trees.  !STo  preliminary 
cutting  back  is  necessary,  as  the  buds  may  be  inserted  where  the 
bark  is  anywhere  from  one  to  three  years  old.  The  work  should  be 
done  just  as  the  leaves  are  coming  out  in  the  spring,  using  the  ordi- 
nary method  of  shield-budding,  and  tying  the  buds  in  place  with 
waxed  cloth.  The  wraps  should  be  left  on  about  three  weeks  and  as 
soon  as  the  buds  have  taken,  the  branches  should  be  cut  back,  leaving 
stubs  five  or  six  inches  long  to  which  the  shoots  from  the  buds  may 
be  tied  as  they  grow  out.  These  stubs  should  be  removed  at  the 
end  of  one  season's  growth." 

It  may  be  mentioned  that  Tane-nashi,  normally  a  seedless 
variety,  fruits  well  without  pollination,  and  it  is  thought  that 
Tamopan  may  do  the  same. 

The  question  of  pollination  is  probably  less  important  in  semi- 
arid  regions,  such  as  California,  than  in  the  moist  climate  of 
Florida.  The  prospective  grower  should  in  any  event  use  care 
in  the  selection  of  varieties,  and  satisfy  himself  as  to  the  need 
of  supplying  pollinizers  for  them,  before  he  undertakes  to 
develop  a  commercial  kaki  orchard. 

Horticultural  varieties  of  the  kaki  are  commonly  propagated 
by  budding  and  grafting.  Several  species  of  Diospyros  are 
used  as  stock-plants. 


362     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

The  Chinese  ring-bud  or  graft  their  plants  upon  the  ghae 
tsao  (Diospyros  Lotus)  and  other  species.  The  Japanese  graft 
upon  D.  Lotus,  on  the  shibukaki  (an  astringent  variety  of  D. 
kaki),  and  occasionally  on  seedlings  of  the  common  sweet- 
fruited  kaki.  Ikeda  states  that  stock-plants  must  be  three 
years  old  and  that  grafting  is  done  in  early  spring,  using  cions 
which  have  been  stored  for  some  days.  Sauvaigo  says  that 
in  southern  France  the  kaki  is  grafted  upon  D.  Lotus,  D. 
virginiana  (the  common  persimmon  of  the  southern  United 
States),  and  one  or  two  other  species.  Crown-grafting  and  other 
methods  are  used,  and  the  work  is  done  in  autumn  or  spring. 

Hume  considers  that  the  best  stock-plant  for  the  southern 
United  States  is  the  common  persimmon  (D.  virginiana), 
since  it  is  more  vigorous  and  produces  a  larger  tree  than  other 
species.  D.  Lotus  has  been  used  in  California  but  its  value 
is  not  yet  fully  determined.  Frank  N.  Meyer  says  of  it :  "As 
a  stock,  this  persimmon  may  give  to  its  grafted  host  a  much 
longer  life  than  the  native  American  persimmon  seems  to  be 
able  to,  for  in  China  all  the  cultivated  persimmons  (kakis) 
grow  much  older  than  they  do  in  America.  Of  some  varieties 
there,  one  finds  trees  grafted  on  D.  Lotus  that  are  centuries  old 
and  still  very  productive." 

Bailey  writes :  "  The  best  method  of  propagating  Japan 
persimmons  is  by  collar-grafting  upon  seedlings  of  the  native 
species  (Diospyros  virginiana),  which  are  grown  either  by 
planting  the  seed  in  nursery  rows  or  transplanting  the  young 
seedlings  from  seed-beds  early  in  the  spring.  The  seedlings 
can  be  budded  in  summer,  and  in  favorable  seasons  a  fair  pro- 
portion of  the  buds  will  succeed.  Thus  propagated,  the  trees 
seem  to  be  longer-lived  than  those  imported  from  Japan. 
Inasmuch  as  the  native  stock  is  used,  the  range  of  adaptation 
as  to  soils  and  similar  conditions  is  very  great.  As  a  stock, 
Diospyros  Lotus  is  adapted  to  the  drier  parts  of  the  West, 
where  D.  virginiana  does  not  succeed." 


THE   KAKI   AND  ITS   RELATIVES  363 

Both  cleft-grafting  and  whip-grafting  are  employed  in 
Florida.  Whip-grafting  is  considered  best  if  the  stock-plants 
are  small.  California  nurserymen  use  the  same  methods  and 
make  a  point  of  placing  the  graft  as  close  to  the  root  as  possible. 

Kaki  trees  begin  bearing  when  three  or  four  years  old,  and, 
proper  attention  being  given  the  matter  of  pollination,  produce 
heavy  crops  of  fruit.  Indeed,  it  is  usually  necessary  in  Cali- 
fornia to  thin  the  fruit  lest  the  trees  injure  themselves  by  over- 
bearing. Pollination  has  been  discussed  on  a  previous  page. 

Picking  and  shipping. 

If  the  fruit  is  to  be  shipped  to  distant  markets,  it  should  be 
gathered  when  fully  grown  but  before  it  has  begun  to  soften. 
Clippers  or  picking-shears  should  be  used,  and  the  fruit  must 
be  handled  carefully,  since  it  is  easily  bruised.  Even  when 
intended  for  home  use  it  is  preferable  to  gather  it.  before  it  has 
begun  to  soften,  and  then  ripen  it  in  a  dry  warm  room.  Fruit 
treated  in  this  manner  is  fully  as  good  as  that  ripened  on  the 
tree. 

Kakis  should  be  packed  for  shipment  as  soon  as  picked. 
The  six-basket  carrier,  commonly  used  for  peaches,  is  employed 
in  shipping  them  from  Florida  to  northern  markets.  Each 
fruit  is  wrapped  in  thin  paper. 

Hume  writes : 

"Some  of  the  varieties  have  dark  flesh,  others  light  flesh,  still 
others  a  mixture  of  the  two.  The  light  and  dark  flesh  differ  radically 
in  texture  and  consistency,  as  well  as  in  appearance,  and  when  found 
in  the  same  fruit  are  never  blended,  but  always  distinct.  The  dark 
flesh  is  never  astringent,  the  light  flesh  is  astringent  until  it  softens. 
The  dark-fleshed  fruit  is  crisp  and  meaty,  like  an  apple,  and  is  edible 
before  it  matures.  Some  of  the  entirely  dark-fleshed  kinds  improve 
as  they  soften,  like  Hyakume  and  Yeddo-ichi ;  others  are  best  when 
still  hard,  like  Zengi.  As  they  are  good  to  eat  before  they  are  ripe, 
it  is  not  so  important  that  the  dark-fleshed  kinds  be  allowed  to  reach  a 
certain  stage  before  being  offered  to  consumers  unfamiliar  with  the 
fruit.  The  light-fleshed  kinds,  and  those  with  mixed  light  and  dark 


364     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

flesh,  are  very  delicious  when  they  reach  the  custard-light  consistency 
of  full  ripeness.  In  some  the  astringency  disappears  as  the  fruit 
begins  to  soften,  as  with  Yemon,  and  in  a  less  degree  with  Okame, 
Tane-nashi ;  in  others  it  persists  until  the  fruit  is  fully  ripe,  as  with 
Tsuru.  The  light-fleshed  kinds  should  not  be  offered  to  consumers 
unacquainted  with  the  fruit  until  in  condition  to  be  eaten.  A  person 
who  has  attempted  to  eat  one  of  them  when  green  and  '  puckery '  will 
not  be  quick  to  repeat  the  experiment.  The  '  puckery '  substance  in 
the  immature  persimmon  is  tannin.  As  the  fruit  ripens,  the  tannin 
forms  into  crystals  which  do  not  dissolve  in  the  mouth,  and  in  this 
way  the  astringency  disappears." 

Various  methods  are  employed  to  remove  the  astringency 
of  the  light-fleshed  kinds  and  render  them  fit  for  eating.  The 
Japanese  place  them  in  tubs  from  which  saki  (rice  beer)  has 
recently  been  withdrawn;  the  tubs  are  then  closed  tightly, 
and  after  ten  days  the  fruit  is  found  to  have  lost  its  astringency 
and  to  be  in  condition  for  eating.  George  C.  Roeding  of  Cali- 
fornia reports :  "  A  new,  simple  process  of  alcohol  inoculation 
has  been  practiced  lately.  Pierce  the  fruits  at  the  bottom 
several  times  with  a  common  needle  dipped  in  alcohol,  and  pack 
them  in  a  tight  box  or  container  lined  with  straw  and  with 
layers  between  the  rows,  keeping  the  box  closed  for  ten  days." 

Several  years  ago  H.  C.  Gore  and  his  associates  in  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  conducted  extensive  experi- 
ments looking  toward  the  perfection  of  a  method  for  processing 
kakis  commercially.  It  was  found  that  by  placing  the  fruits 
in  an  air-tight  drum  or  container  and  subjecting  them  to  the 
influence  of  carbon-dioxide  for  a  period  of  two  to  seven  days, 
the  astringency  was  entirely  removed  from  certain  varieties. 
With  other  kinds  the  method  was  not' altogether  successful. 
Since  processing  must  always  be  tedious,  it  seems  more  satis- 
factory to  plant  only  the  sorts  which  do  not  require  this  treat- 
ment. 

If  the  orchard  comprises  several  varieties,  ripe  fruit  may  be 
picked  in  Florida  from  August  to  December  or  even  later,  and  in 
California  from  September  to  December.  Hume  notes,  re- 


THE   KAKI   AND   ITS   RELATIVES  365 

garding  Florida:  ''The  first  persimmon  to  ripen  is  Zengi, 
in  August ;  the  whole  crop  does  not  come  at  this  time,  however, 
but  continues  to  ripen  for  sixty  days,  the  seedless  ones  being 
larger  and  later.  .  .  .  Early  in  September  come  the  first 
Okames,  continuing  to  ripen  for  a  month.  Hyakume  ripens 
from  September  15  to  30,  the  bulk  of  the  crop  ripening  to- 
gether, which  is  also  true  of  Yemon,  which  ripens  next.  Some 
fruits  of  Triumph  ripen  in  September,  and  it  continues  to  ripen 
its  fruits  until  December.  At  any  time  after  the  middle  of 
October  the  whole  crop  of  Triumph  may  be  removed  and 
ripened  off  the  trees.  Tane-nashi  ripens  with  Yemon  and 
Hachiya  with  Okame,  Yeddo-ichi  early  in  October,  Costata 
later  in  the  month,  and  Tsuru  latest  of  all,  often  hanging  on 
the  trees  until  midwinter."  Roeding  gives  the  ripening  season 
of  the  principal  commercial  varieties  in  California  as  follows: 
Tane-nashi  in  September,  Hachiya  in  October,  Hyakume  in 
November,  and  Yemon  in  December. 

Pests  and  diseases. 

There  are  few  insects  or  fungous  diseases  which  need  cause 
the  American  kaki-grower  serious  concern.  The  Mediterranean 
fruit-fly  (Ceratitis  capitata  Wied.)  attacks  the  fruit  in  Australia, 
but  this  insect  has  not  yet  made  its  appearance  in  the  United 
States.  A  few  scale  insects  are  occasionally  found  in  the  kaki 
orchards  of  California  and  Florida,  but  the  attacks  of  none 
have  proved  serious.  Hume  writes  as  follows  with  reference 
to  Florida : 

"  The  worst  enemy  of  persimmon  trees,  and  the  only  one  worthy 
of  note,  is  the  flat-headed  borer  (Dicera  obscura),  a  native  insect. 
The  adult  is  a  hard,  metallic  beetle,  about  five-eighths  inch  in  length. 
It  lays  its  eggs  in  rough-barked  places  in  the  crotches  of  the  tree,  or 
in  wounds  made  in  pruning  or  resulting  from  injuries  of  any  kind. 
The  young  borers  hatched  from  these  eggs  bore  through  the  bark, 
work  between  the  bark  and  wood,  later  boring  into  the  wood.  The 
larvae  when  well  grown  are  about  one  inch  long,  white,  with  broad, 


366     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

flat  heads  and  round  bodies.  That  they  are  at  work  in  a  tree  may 
be  known  by  the  discolored  bark  and  by  gum  oozing  from  the  trunk 
or  branches.  Cut  away  the  bark  with  a  sharp  knife  or  chisel  and 
destroy  them.  Paint  the  wounds  thus  made  with  good,  thick,  white- 
lead  paint.  Carefully  paint  all  wounds  when  made,  and  scrape 
the  rough-barked  places  on  young  trees.  By  careful  attention  to 
wounds  on  the  trees,  they  may  be  prevented  from  entering,  and 
the  trees  will  live  to  a  good  old  age." 

Varieties. 

Although  800  varieties  are  grown  in  Japan,  Ikeda  does  not 
consider  more  than  90  to  be  valuable.  In  the  United  States 
the  number  offered  by  nurserymen  is  relatively  small.  The 
nomenclature  of  the  horticultural  varieties  in  Japan  is  some- 
what confused,  and  doubtless  nurserymen  have  multiplied  the 
names.  China  possesses  a  considerable  number  of  varieties, 
but  relatively  few  of  them  are  yet  known  in  the  United  States. 

Japanese  writers  classify  kakis  according  as  they  are  sweet 
or  astringent.  Hume  points  out  that  such  a  classification  is  not 
tenable,  inasmuch  as  certain  varieties  fall  in  the  sweet  group 
when  carrying  seeds  and  in  the  astringent  group  when  seedless. 
He  writes  in  the  Journal  of  Heredity  for  September,  1914 : 

"  Based  on  the  difference  in  flesh  coloration  under  the  influence 
of  pollination,  kaki  may  be  divided  into  at  least  two  groups,  —  first, 
those  which  show  no  change  of  color  of  flesh  under  the  influence  of 
pollination,  and,  second,  those  in  which  the  flesh  of  the  fruit  is  dark- 
ened under  the  influence  of  pollination.  Since  the  change  in  color 
in  the  one  case  is  directly  due  to  pollination  and  in  the  other  pollina- 
tion has  no  effect  whatever,  we  shall  refer  to  those  varieties  which 
undergo  no  change  in  color  as  Pollination  Constants  and  those  which 
are  light  colored  when  seedless  and  dark  colored  when  seedy  we  shall 
call  Pollination  Variants.  Now,  all  varieties  of  D.  kaki  growing  in 
this  country  or  elsewhere  may  be  referred  to  one  or  the  other  of  these 
groups.  If  varieties  which  are  constantly  dark-fleshed  whether  seedy 
or  seedless  should  be  found,  the  group  of  Pollination  Constants  can 
then  be  divided  into  two  groups  of  light-  and  dark-fleshed  Pollina- 
tion Constants.  It  is  hardly  probable  that  there  are  varieties  which 
are  dark-fleshed  when  seedless  and  light-fleshed  when  seedy,  but  if 
any  such  should  be  discovered  a  similar  plan  can  be  followed  by  divid- 
ing the  group  of  Pollination  Variants." 


THE   KAKI   AND  ITS   RELATIVES  367 

The  varieties  here  described  are  grouped  according  to  this 
classification.  The  number  is  limited  to  those  which  are  well 
known  in  the  United  States,  and  are  offered  here  by  nursery- 
men. Regarding  their  relative  merits,  Hume  says:  "Tane- 
nashi,  Triumph,  Okame,  Yemon,  and  Yeddo-ichi  excel  in 
quality,  perhaps  in  the  order  named.  Okame,  on  account  of 
its  long  season,  exquisite  beauty,  and  superior  quality,  is  the 
best  for  home  use  and  the  local  market.  Hachiya  is  valued 
for  its  immense  size  and  showiness.  For  market,  Tane-nashi 
and  Yemon,  of  the  light-fleshed  kinds,  and  Hyakume  and 
Yeddo-ichi,  of  the  dark-fleshed  kinds,  are  good  shippers  and 
desirable ;  Okame  is  also  good."  Fuyugaki,  a  variety  recently 
introduced  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  now  promises 
to  excel  all  other  kakis  as  a  market  fruit ;  it  is  never  astringent 
(hence  requires  no  processing),  the  appearance  and  quality 
of  the  fruit  are  both  highly  satisfactory,  and  the  tree  is  very 
productive. 

Group  of  pollination  constants 

Costata.  —  Form  conical,  pointed,  somewhat  four-angled  in  trans- 
verse section;  size  medium,  length  2f  inches,  thickness  2\  inches; 
surface  salmon-yellow ;  flesh  light  yellow,  dark-colored  flesh  or  seeds  sel- 
dom occurring ;  flavor  astringent  until  the  fruit  is  fully  ripe,  then  sweet 
and  pleasant.  Ripening  season  very  late. 

Tree  distinctive  in  appearance  and  a  rapid 
erect  grower.  It  does  not  produce  staminate 
flowers  in  Florida.  The  fruit  is  remarkable 
for  its  good  keeping  qualities. 

Fuyugaki  (Fig.  47). —  Form  oblate;  size 
medium-large,  length  about  2  inches,  thick- 
ness about  2f  inches;  base  with  sometimes 
four  creases  extending  outward  from  the 
stem,  the  calyx  reflexed  in  the  ripe  fruit;  Fm  47  The  Fuyugaki 
apex  depressed,  with  smooth,  regular,  shallow  kaki.  (X  about  i) 

basin;  surf  ace  deep  orange-red  in  color ;  skin 

thin,  tough ;  flesh  firm,  meaty  when  ripe,  deep  carrot-orange  in  color, 
with  minute,  widely  scattered  dark  specks ;  flavor  sweet,  with  no  as- 
tringency  even  in  the  unripe  fruit ;  seeds  f  inch  long,  few. 

Recently  introduced  from  Japan   by   the  United   States  Depart- 


368     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 


ment  of  Agriculture.     Hume  says :    "  It  keeps  well,   and  in   quality 

is  one  of  the  best.  We  believe  this  variety  will  surpass  all  other 
Japan  persimmons  so  far  introduced  as  a 
market  fruit.  It  can  be  placed  on  the  market 
while  still  hard,  and  can  be  eaten  without 
waiting  for  the  fruit  to  soften." 

Hachiya  (Fig.  48).  —  Form  oblong-conical, 
with  a  short  point  at  the  apex ;  size  very  large, 
length  3 1  inches,  thickness  3^  inches;  surface 
bright  orange-red,  with  occasional  dark  spots 
and  rings  near  the  apex;  flesh  deep  yellow, 
sometimes  having  a  few  dark  streaks  in  it; 
flavor  astringent  until  the  fruit  is  fully  ripe, 
then  rich  and  sweet ;  seeds  present.  Ripens 
midseason  to  late. 

Tree  vigorous  in  growth,  with  a  tendency 
to  bear  fruit  in  alternate  years.  It  does  not 
produce  staminate  flowers  in  Florida.  The 
fruit  is  large  and  handsome.  Said  to  be  one 
of  the  principal  varieties  used  in  Japan  for 
drying. 

Ormond.  —  Form  conical ;     size    small   to 

medium,  length  2f  inches,  thickness  1|  inches ;  base  rounded,  with  the 

calyx   reflexed  ;  apex  sharp,  not  creased,  or  only  slightly  so ;  surface 

smooth,  bright  orange-red,  covered  with  a  thin 

bloom;    skin  thin,    tough;  flesh  orange-red, 

meaty,  or  jelly-like  in  the  fully  ripe  fruit; 

seeds  large,  long,  pointed.     Ripening  season 

late  (December  in  Florida). 

A  fruit  of  good  quality,  and  one  which 

keeps  well. 

Tamopan.  —  Form  broadly  oblate  with  a 

constriction  around  the  middle ;    size  large, 

weight  sometimes  16  ounces,  diameter  3  to  5 

inches ;  surface  smooth,  orange-red  in  color ; 

skin  tough  and  rather  thick;    flesh  meaty, 

light  colored ;  flavor  astringent  until  the  fruit   nashi  kaki«  one  of  the  Prin- 

is  fully  ripe,  then  rich  and  sweet ;  seedless.        cipal    varieties    used     in 
Introduced   from   China  by   the   United 

The 


FIG.  48.      The   Hachiya 
kaki.     (X  £) 


FIG. 


The     Tane- 


of 

grown  commercially  in  the 

United  States.   (X  about  J) 


States    Department    of    Agriculture, 
tree  is  a  strong,  upright  grower. 

Tane-nashi  (Fig.  49).  — Form  roundish 
conical,  very  symmetrical ;  size  large  to  very  large,  length  3£  inches,  thick- 
ness 3|  inches ;  surface  very  smooth,  light  yellow  to  bright  orange-red ; 
flesh  yellow,  soft ;  flavor  sweet  and  pleasant ;  seedless.  Ripens  early. 


THE   KAKI   AND  ITS  RELATIVES  369 

The  tree  is  vigorous,  prolific,  and  self-fertile,  but  it  has  shown  a 
tendency  in  California  to  bear  in  alternate  years.  Extensively  used 
in  Japan  for  drying  and  considered  a  valuable  market  variety  in  the 
United  States.  Perhaps  the  most  highly  esteemed  of  the  light-fleshed 
kinds. 

Triumph.  —  Form  oblate ;  size  medium ;  surface  yellowish  to 
deep  orange-red;  skin  thick;  flesh  yellowish  red,  translucent,  soft 
and  juicy ;  flavor  astringent  until  the  fruit  is  fully  ripe,  when  it  be- 
comes sweet  and  pleasant ;  seedless  or  with  as  many  as  5  to  8  seeds . 
Ripens  in  Florida  from  September  to  December. 

The  tree  does  not  produce  staminate  flowers  in  Florida.  A  fruit 
of  good  quality,  recommended  for  home  use  and  for  market. 

Tsuru.  —  Form  slender,  pointed;  size  large,  length  3|  inches, 
thickness  2|  inches;  surface  bright  orange-red;  flesh  orange-yellow; 
flavor  astringent  until  the  fruit  is  fully  ripe,  when  it  becomes  sweet 
and  pleasant.  Ripens  very  late. 

Tree  vigorous  and  productive,  but  does  not  produce  staminate 
flowers  in  Florida. 

Group  of  pollination  variants 

Gailey.  —  Form  oblong-conical,  sharp  at  the  apex ;  size  small ;  sur- 
face dull  red,  pebbled ;  flesh  meaty,  firm,  and  juicy ;  flavor  pleasant. 

This  variety  regularly  .produces  staminate  flowers  every  year,  and 
is  recommended  for  planting  as  a  pollin  zer  n  conjunction  with  the 
larger-  and  better-fruited  sorts.  One  tree  of  Gailey  should  be  planted 
to  seven  or  eight  of  other  varieties  except  Tane-nashi. 

Hyakume.  —  Form  roundish  oblong  to  roundish  oblate,  always 
somewhat  flattened  at  both  ends ;  size  large  to  very  large,  length 
2  f  inches,  thickness  3|  inches;  surface  light  buff -yellow,  marked  with 
rings  and  veins  near  the  apex;  flesh  dark  brown,  crisp  and  meaty; 
flavor  sweet,  not  astringent  even  while  the  fruit  is  still  hard.  Ripens 
midseason. 

The  tree  is  vigorous  and  productive,  but  never  produces  staminate 
flowers  in  Florida.  One  of  the  standard  commercial  varieties  in 
California. 

Okame.  —  Form  roundish  oblate,  with  well-defined  quarter-marks, 
and  the  apex  not  depressed;  size  large,  length  2f  inches,  thickness 
3 1  inches;  surface  orange-yellow,  changing  to  brilliant  carmine,  with 
a  thin  bloom  which  gives  it  a  waxy  translucent  appearance;  flesh 
light  colored,  brownish  around  the  seeds,  of  which  there  are  several ; 
flavor  astringent  until  the  fruit  begins  to  ripen,  when  it  becomes 
sweet  and  pleasant.  Ripens  rather  early. 

The  tree  is  vigorous  in  growth  and  a  good  bearer.  It  bears  stami- 
nate flowers  sporadically  in  Florida.  The  fruit  is  excellent  in  quality. 

Yeddo-ichi.  —  Form  oblate;   size  large,  length  2\  inches,  thickness 

2B  ...   - 

• 

f^ 


370     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

3  inches ;  surface  smooth  or  undulating,  dark  orange-red,  and  covered 
with  a  distinct  bloom;  flesh  dark  brown,  tinged  purplish;  flavor 
sweet  and  rich,  not  astringent  even  while  the  fruit  is  still  hard.  , 

A  fruit  of  excellent  quality. 

Yemon.  —  Form  oblate,  somewhat  four-angled ;  size  large,  length 
2 j  inches,  thickness  3  j  inches ;  surface  light  yellow,  changing  to  reddish 
and  mottled  with  orange-yellow ;  flesh  dull  red-brown,  except  in  occa- 
sional light-fleshed  specimens;  few-seeded  or  seedless;  flavor  sweet 
and  pleasant  after  the  fruit  begins  to  soften. 

A  fruit  of  excellent  quality. 

Zengi.  —  Form  round  or  roundish  oblate ;  size  small,  length  1  f 
inches,  thickness  2\  inches;  surface  yellowish  red ;  flesh  dark-colored ; 
flavor  sweet,  even  in  the  unripe  fruit;  seeds  present.  Ripens  very 
early. 

The  tree  is  vigorous  in  growth  and  prolific  in  fruiting. 

THE  BLACK  SAPOTE  (Plate  XXII) 
(Dios.pyros  Ebenaster,  Retz.) 

Outside  of  Mexico  the  black  sapote  is  little  known ;  in  that 
country,  however,  it  is  one  of  the  popular  fruits  and  is  grown 
from  sea-level  up  to  elevations  of  5000  or  even  6000  feet.  Un- 
fortunately, the  dark  color  of  the  flesh  makes  the  fruit  some- 
what unattractive  to  those  not  familiar  with  it,  but  its  large 
size,  relative  freedom  from  seeds,  and  its  good  quality  make  it  a 
worthy  tropical  rival  of  the  subtropical  kaki  or  Japanese 
persimmon. 

In  the  Mexican  lowlands  the  black  sapote,  if  grown  on  deep, 
rich,  and  moist  soil,  becomes  a  large  and  handsome  tree,  ulti- 
mately reaching  50  or  60  feet  in  height.  In  regions  where  the 
climate  is  cool  or  the  soil  is  not  favorable,  it  may  not  grow 
higher  than  25  or  30  feet.  The  branchlets  are  dark  colored, 
and  the  leaves  elliptic  or  oblong  in  outline,  usually  obtuse  at 
the  apex,  commonly  4  to  8  inches  long,  and  bright  green  and 
shining.  The  flowers  are  small  and  white  and  resemble  those 
of  the  kaki.  They  are  polygamous,  i.e.,  some  of  them  possess 
both  stamens  and  pistils  and  others  are  staminate.  The  oblate 
fruit,  which  has  a  conspicuous  green  calyx  around  the  stem 


PLATE  XIX.     The  sapodilla  (Achras  Sapota). 


THE   KAKI   AND   ITS   RELATIVES  371 

and  is  somewhat  obscurely  ribbed  or  lobed,  is  2  to  5  inches  in 
diameter  and  olive-green  in  color.  The  pulp  which  lies  within 
its  thin  skin  is  soft,  unctuous,  dark  chocolate  brown  in  color, 
and  of  sweet  flavor  similar  to  that  of  the  kaki  but  scarcely  so 
pleasant.  The  seeds,  one  to  ten  in  number  (occasionally  none), 
are  oval,  compressed,  and  about  f  inch  long. 

William  Philip  Hiern,  a  recent  monographer  of  the  Ebenacese, 
following  the  botanist  Manuel  Blanco,  considers  the  black 
sapote  to  be  indigenous  in  the  Philippine  Islands.  Other 
authorities,  however,  hold  that  its  native  home  is  in  Mexico, 
and  perhaps  also  in  the  West  Indies.  Many  American  plants 
were  carried  to  the  Philippines  in  the  early  days  by  the  Spanish 
galleons  which  plied  between  Acapulco  and  Manila,  and  con- 
versely, certain  Philippine  plants  were  brought  to  America. 
Elmer  D.  Merrill 1  observes  regarding  the  black  sapote : 
"Rarely  cultivated,  flowering  in  March;  of  local  occurrence 
in  the  Philippines.  Introduced  from  Mexico  at  an  early  date, 
4and  apparently  formerly  much  more  common  than  now."  The 
existence  of  an  Aztec  name,  tliltzapotl  (if  Manuel  Urbina  is 
correct  in  believing  that  this  name  was  applied  by  the  Aztecs  to 
Diospyros  Ebenaster)  would  argue  an  ancient  cultivation  in 
America,  though  it  would  not  necessarily  indicate  that  the 
species  is  indigenous  here.  But  on  the  whole,  the  evidence 
seems  to  weigh  heavily  in  favor  of  an  American,  as  opposed 
to  an  Asiatic,  origin. 

At  the  present  time,  the  black  sapote  is  cultivated  on  a  very 
limited  scale  in  the  West  Indies  and  in  Hawaii,  and  rarely 
in  the  East  Indies.  It  has  been  planted  at  Miami,  Florida, 
where  it  gives  promise  of  being  quite  successful.  It  is  some- 
times injured  by  frost  in  that  region,  but  danger  from  this 
source  seems  to  be  no  greater  than  with  the  mango.  Although 
many  seedlings  have  been  planted  in  California,  they  have 
failed  to  survive  the  winters,  even  when  grown  in  the  most 
1  Flora  of  Manila. 


372     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

protected  situations.  The  common  name  of  the  fruit  in  Porto 
Rico  is  guayabote  or  guayabota;  in  Hawaii  it  has  been  called 
black  persimmon ;  while  the  usual  terms  in  Mexico  are  zapote 
negro  and  zapote  prieto. 

The  black  sapote  is  eaten  fresh.  It  is  more  highly  esteemed 
by  Europeans  when  the  pulp  is  beaten  with  a  small  quantity  of 
orange  or  lemon  juice  and  served  as  a  dessert.  It  should  be 
chilled  thoroughly  before  serving. 

In  its  climatic  requirements  the  species  must  be  considered 
tropical,  yet  it  will  succeed  in  regions  occasionally  subject  to 
temperatures  of  28°  or  30°  above  zero.  Young  plants,  however, 
are  killed  by  freezing  temperatures,  and  for  this  reason  it  is 
necessary  in  Florida  to  protect  them  during  the  first  few 
winters.  In  Mexico  the  species  grows  both  in  regions  subject 
to  heavy  rainfall  and  those  which  are  extremely  dry,  but  in 
the  latter  it  requires  abundant  irrigation.  It  is  most  commonly 
grown  at  elevations  from  0  to  2000  feet,  which  indicates  that  it 
prefers  a  warm  climate.  It  prefers  a  deep,  moist,  sandy  loam, 
but  has  made  fairly  good  growth  in  Florida  on  shallow  sandy  soil. 

Like  other  fruits,  the  black  sapote  is  grown  in  the  tropics 
as  a  dooryard  tree  and  is  not  often  planted  in  orchard  form. 
Little  is  known,  therefore,  regarding  the  cultural  methods  which 
will  best  suit  it.  Young  trees  are  set  in  the  open  ground  when 
one  to  two  feet  high,  and  should  be  spaced  (if  in  the  tropics 
and  on  deep  soil)  not  closer  than  40  feet,  or  25  feet  if  in  a  sub- 
tropical climate  (such  as  that  of  Florida)  and  on  poor  soil. 
Propagation  is  usually  effected  by  means  of  the  seeds,  which 
retain  their  viability  for  several  months  if  kept  dry.  They 
should  be  sown  |  inch  deep  in  flats  or  pots  of  light  loamy  soil, 
and  will  germinate  in  about  a  month  if  the  weather  is  warm. 
When  three  inches  high,  the  plants  may  be  transferred  to  three- 
inch  pots.  Their  growth  is  slow  and  they  require  one  to  two 
years  to  reach  suitable  size  for  transplanting  to  the  open 
ground. 


THE   KAKI   AND   ITS   RELATIVES  373 

P.  J.  Wester  has  found  that  the  species  may  be  propagated 
by  shield-budding  in  much  the  same  manner  as  the  avocado  and 
the  mango.  Using  this  method  it  is  possible  to  perpetuate 
choice  varieties  which  originate  as  chance  seedlings.  Wester 
says  briefly  :  "Use  mature,  but  not  green  and  smooth,  petioled 
budwood ;  cut  the  buds  about  an  inch  and  a  half  long ;  insert 
the  bud  at  a  point  where  the  stock  is  green  or  brown  before  it 
becomes  rough." 

Seedling  trees  do  not  come  into  bearing  until  they  are  five  or 
six  years  of  age.  Even  more  time  than  this  has  been  required 
in  Florida.  Mature  trees'  usually  bear  regularly  and  heavily. 
The  ripening  season  in  the  Mexican  lowlands  is  July  to  Septem- 
ber, somewhat  later  in  the  tierra  templada  or  region  which  lies 
between  2500  and  4000  feet.  If  taken  from  the  tree  when 
mature  and  shipped  immediately,  the  fruit  may  be  sent  to  dis- 
tant markets;  but  once  it  has  softened  (usually  three  to  six 
days  after  it  is  picked),  it  is  difficult  to  handle  because  of  its  thin 
delicate  skin  and  the  large  mass  of  soft  pulp. 

No  horticultural  varieties  have  as  yet  been  established. 
Seedlings  differ  noticeably  in  the  size  and  character  of  their 
fruits,  and  it  will  be  worth  while  to  search  out  the  best  ones 
and  propagate  them  by  budding.  Fruits  1£  pounds  in  weight 
are  seen  at  Tehuantepec,  State  of  Oaxaca,  Mexico. 

THE  MABOLO 
(Diospyros  discolor,  Willd.) 

Like  the  durian  and  the  santol,  the  mabolo  is  a  Malayan 
fruit  little  known  outside  its  native  area.  It  is  a  medium-sized 
tree  with  oblong-acute  leaves  4  to  8  inches  long,  shining  above 
and  pubescent  beneath.  The  fruit  is  round  or  oblate  in  form, 
about  3  inches  in  diameter,  with  a  thin,  velvety,  dull  red  skin, 
and  whitish,  aromatic,  rather  dry  flesh  which  adheres  to  the 
four  to  eight  large  seeds.  P.  J.  Wester  writes :  "There  is  also 


374     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITi 

a  variety,  rarer  than  the  red,  with  yellowish  to  light  browi 
fruits,  the  flesh  of  which  is  cream  colored  and  sweeter,  and  less 
astringent.  Trees  bearing  regular  crops  of  seedless  fruits 
are  known  in  the  Philippines.  The  main  season  of  the  mabolo 
extends  from  June  to  September,  but  scattered  fruits  are  found 
at  practically  all  seasons  of  the  year.  It  is  of  medium  vigorous 
growth  and  makes  a  desirable  ornamental  shade  tree.  It  is 
indigenous  to  the  Philippines  and  is  fairly  well  introduced 
throughout  the  eastern  tropics."  It  is  not  cultivated  in  the 
West  Indies  or  elsewhere  in  tropical  America,  although  a  few 
trees  may  have  been  planted  in  botanic  gardens  and  private 
collections. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
THE  POMEGRANATE  AND  THE   JUJUBE 

THE  pomegranate  and  jujube  are  not  closely  related  botani- 
cally,  but  the  cultural  requirements  are  similar.  The  pome- 
granate is  the  only  genus  of  its  family  (the  Punicacese),  while 
the  jujube  (genus  Zizyphus)  is  one  of  40  or  50  genera  of  the 
Rhamnacese  or  Buckthorn  family. 

THE  POMEGRANATE  (Plate  XXII) 
(Punica  Granatum,  L.) 

"Eat  the  pomegranate,"  sententiously  said  the  prophet 
Muhammad,  "for  it  purges  the  system  of  envy  and  hatred." 
Far  earlier  than  in  the  days  of  Muhammad,  however,  was  this 
fruit  esteemed  in  the  Orient.  King  Solomon  possessed  an 
orchard  of  pomegranate  bushes;  and  when  the  Children  of 
Israel,  wandering  in  the  Wilderness,  sighed  for  the  abandoned 
comforts  of  Egypt,  the  cooling  pomegranates,  along  with  figs 
and  grapes,  were  remembered  as  longingly  as  the  fleshpots. 

It  is  with  the  grape  and  the  fig  that  the  pomegranate  has 
been  associated  since  the  earliest  times ;  but  while  in  the  East 
it  still  vies  with  them  in  popularity  and  importance,  in  America 
it  occupies  a  minor  position.  Probably  this  is  due :  first,  to 
the  abundance  here  of  other  good  fruits ;  and,  secondly,  to 
something  in  the  character  of  the  pomegranate  which  makes  it 
particularly  agreeable  to  inhabitants  of  hot  arid  regions. 
For  this  latter  reason  it  might  appeal  in  this  country  to  a  rela- 
tively small  number;  but  even  in  the  desert  valleys  of  Cali- 

375 


376     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

fornia  and  Arizona,  where  it  should  be  most  acceptable, 
Americans  have  not  yet  learned  to  appreciate  it  fully. 

About  150  acres  are  now  planted  commercially  to  pome- 
granates in  California.  The  total  production  in  the  United 
States,  according  to  the  census  of  1910,  is  about  150,000  pounds. 

If  allowed  to  develop  naturally,  the  pomegranate  becomes  a 
bush  15  to  20  feet  in  height.  By  training,  it  can  be  made  to 
form  a  tree,  usually  branching  close  to  the  ground.  It  is 
semi-deciduous  or  deciduous  in  habit.  The  leaves  are  lanceolate 
to  oblong  (sometimes  obovate)  in  form,  obtuse,  about  3  inches 
long,  glossy,  bright  green,  and  glabrous.  The  handsome 
brilliant  orange-red  flowers  are  axillary,  solitary,  or  in  small 
clusters,  and  borne  toward  the  ends  of  the  branchlets.  The 
calyx  is  tubular,  persistent,  five-  to  seven-lobed ;  the  petals, 
five  to  seven  in  number,  are  lanceolate,  inserted  between  the 
calyx-lobes.  The  ovary  is  embedded  in  the  calyx-tube,  and 
contains  several  locules  in  two  series,  one  above  the  other. 

The  fruit  is  globose  or  somewhat  flattened,  obscurely  six- 
sided,  the  size  of  an  orange  or  sometimes  larger,  and  crowned 
by  the  thick  tubular  calyx,  giving  an  ornamental  effect.  It  has 
a  smooth  leathery  skin,  which  in  the  ripe  fruit  ranges  from 
brownish  yellow  to  red  in  color.  Thin  dissepiments  divide 
the  upper  portion  into  several  cells ;  below  these,  a  diaphragm 
separates  the  lower  half,  which  in  its  turn  is  divided  into  several 
cells.  Each  cell  is  filled  with  a  large  number  of  grains,  crowded 
on  thick  spongy  placentae;  these  grains,  which  are  many- 
sided  and  about  |  inch  long,  consist  of  a  thin  transparent  vesicle 
containing  reddish  juicy  pulp  surrounding  an  elongated  angular 
seed.  The  pulp  is  delightfully  subacid  in  flavor. 

Alphonse  DeCandolle  reached  the  conclusion  that  the 
"botanical,  historical,  and  philological  data  agree  in  showing 
that  the  modern  species  is  a  native  of  Persia  and  some  adjacent 
countries,"  an  opinion  which  is  generally  accepted  at  the  present 
day.  The  cultivation  of  the  pomegranate,  which  began  in 


THE   POMEGRANATE   AND   THE  JUJUBE          377 

prehistoric  times,  was  extended,  before  the  Christian  era,  west- 
ward to  the  Mediterranean  region  and  eastward  into  China. 
At  the  present  time  it  is  a  common  fruit  in  India,  Afghanistan, 
Persia,  Arabia,  and  near  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  both 
in  Europe  and  Africa,  more  particularly  the  latter.  In  America 
it  is  scattered  from  the  southern  United  States  to  Chile  and 
Argentina,  probably  reaching  its  greatest  perfection  in  the 
arid  regions  of  California,  Arizona,  and  northern  Mexico. 

Throughout  tropical  America  the  plant  is  common  in  gardens 
and  dooryards,  but  in  many  places  it  is  grown  more  for  its 
ornamental  value  than  for  its  fruit.  In  humid  climates  the 
fruit  is  inferior  in  quality. 

The  ancient  Semitic  name  rimmon  has  been  adopted  by  the 
Arabs  as  rumman,  and  later  the  Portuguese  roma  or  roman  was 
formed  from  it.  From  the  early  Roman  names  malum  punicum 
(apple  of  Carthage)  and  granatum  have  been  taken  the  botanical 
name  Punica  Granatum,  L.,  under  which  the  species  is  known 
scientifically,  and  the  common  name  granada,  used  throughout 
Spanish-speaking  countries.  From  this  same  source,  evidently, 
are  the  French  grenade  and  the  German  granatapfel.  Of  the 
several  names  current  in  Hindustan  anar  is  the  commonest; 
darimba  is  the  Sanskrit  name.  The  Persians  know  the  pome- 
granate-flower as  jitlnar. 

The  fruit  is  peculiarly  refreshing  in  character,  hence  is  much 
eaten  in  hot  countries.  It  is  also  used  to  prepare  a  cooling 
drink  known  as  grenadine;  but  the  beverage  dispensed  under 
this  name  in  the  Mediterranean  region  and  tropical  America 
commonly  is  colored  and  flavored  artificially.  The  roots  of  the 
plant  and  the  rind  and  seeds  of  the  fruit  are  used  medicinally  in 
the  Orient.  The  classical  Arab  lexicographers  define  the  pome- 
granate as :  "a  certain  fruit,  the  produce  of  a  certain  tree,  well 
known ;  the  sweet  sort  thereof  relaxes  the  state  of  the  bowels, 
and  cough ;  the  sour  sort  has  the  contrary  effect ;  and  that  which 
is  between  sweet  and  sour  is  good  for  inflammation  of  the 


378     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

stomach,  and  pain  of  the  heart.  The  pomegranate  has  six 
flavors,  like  the  apple,  and  is  commended  for  its  delicacy,  its 
quick  dissolving,  and  its  elegance." 

In  the  United  States  the  fruit  has  been  more  highly  valued 
for  its  decorative  effect  than  for  other  purposes.  It  is  used 
on  banquet-tables  and  as  an  adjunct  to  fruit  salads.  The 
principal  chemical  constituents  of  the  pulp,  as  determined  in 
Hawaii  by  Alice  R.  Thompson,  are  as  follows :  Total  solids 
17.52  per  cent,  ash  0.73,  acids  0.13,  protein  0.52,  total  sugars 
16.07,  fat  0.30,  and  fiber  0.32. 

While  the  pomegranate  can  be  grown  throughout  the  tropics 
and  subtropics,  it  produces  good  fruit  only  in  semi-arid  regions 
where  high  temperatures  accompany  the  ripening  season.  In 
this  respect  it  somewhat  resembles  the  date-palm,  although  it 
is  less  exacting  as  regards  heat  than  the  latter  and  more  frost- 
resistant.  Like  the  palm,  it  requires  plenty  of  water  at  the  root, 
if  good  fruit  is  to  be  produced  in  abundance ;  nevertheless,  it  is 
able  to  withstand  long  periods  of  drought.  Minimum  tem- 
peratures of  15°  or  18°  above  zero  may  not  injure  the  plants 
severely.  The  sour  varieties  are  said  to  be  hardier  than  the 
sweet.  No  climate  is  too  hot  for  the  pomegranate,  provided  it 
receives  ample  water. 

In  regard  to  soil,  the  species  is  not  exacting  but  it  is  considered 
to  succeed  best  on  deep,  rather  heavy,  loams.  It  is  on  soils  of 
this  type  that  the  excellent  pomegranates  of  Mesopotamia  are 
grown.  A  small  amount  of  alkali  is  not  injurious,  nor  does 
excessive  moisture  seem  as  detrimental  to  the  pomegranate  as 
to  many  other  fruit-trees.  George  C.  Roeding  remarks:  "I 
have  used  the  pomegranate  for  a  number  of  years  in  depressions 
in  my  vineyard  where  the  ground  was  so  damp  for  a  good  part 
of  the  year  that  grape  vines  invariably  died.  The  pome- 
granate luxuriates  in  these  spots." 

When  planted  in  orchard  form,  the  bushes  should  be  set 
12  to  18  feet  apart.  Pomegranates  are  often  planted  in  hedge- 


THE  POMEGRANATE  AND   THE  JUJUBE          379 

rows,  and  under  such  conditions  are  ordinarily  not  more  than 
6  or  8  feet  apart;  but  close  planting  and  the  permitting  of 
development  of  suckers  from  the  base  of  the  plant  naturally 
are  detrimental  to  fruit-production. 

Cultural  practices  in  California  have  been  described  by  Robert 
W.  Hodgson,  in  "The  Pomegranate."  l  The  following  extracts 
are  taken  from  his  publication : 

"  Pomegranate  trees  should  be  planted  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the 
ground  can  readily  be  worked  and  is  not  too  wet.  However,  as  the 
pomegranate  starts  growth  comparatively  late  in  the  spring,  late 
planting  is  not  accompanied  by  such  disastrous  effects  as  with  the 
stone  fruits.  The  best  results  seem  to  be  obtained  by  planting  in 
February  and  March. 

"  If  the  soil  is  in  good  condition,  little  care  other  than  irrigation 
and  two  or  three  cultivations  during  the  season  is  needed  after  planting. 
In  older  orchards  the  soil  should  be  stirred  at  least  once  a  month  during 
the  growing  season. 

"  Some  growers  irrigate  but  little,  while  others  apply  as  much  as  they 
give  then*  citrus  orchards.  ...  If  we  set  the  water  requirements  of 
orange  trees  at  fifty  inches,  including  the  rainfall,  we  may  consider 
that  the  pomegranate  requires  thirty-five  to  forty  inches.  Some  of 
this  water  comes  as  rain  in  the  winter  season.  The  rest  is  usually 
applied  in  two  to  five  irrigations,  distributed  through  the  growing 
season.  Some  growers  irrigate  until  July  only.  Others  apply  water 
once  a  month  until  September.  The  furrow  system  is  used  almost 
universally. 

"  To  prune  intelligently,  one  must  consider  the  fruiting  habit,  and 
habit  of  growth  of  the  tree.  The  pomegranate  is  a  vigorous  grower, 
sending  up  each  year  a  number  of  shoots  from  the  root  which  gives  the 
plant  a  bush  form  unless  otherwise  trained.  The  fruit  is  borne  termi- 
nally on  short  spurs  produced  on  slow-growing  mature  wood.  This 
wood  bears  for  several  years,  but  as  the  tree  increases  in  size  this  wood 
loses  its  fruiting  habit,  which  is  assumed  by  the  younger  growth. 
Little  or  no  fruit  is  produced  in  the  interior  of  the  tree. 

"  Bearing  this  in  mind,  it  can  clearly  be  seen  that  a  heavy  pruning, 
especially  shortening  in  of  the  older  wood,  will  greatly  reduce  the  crop 
for  the  next  two  or  three  years. 

"  When  the  tree  is  planted  it  should  be  cut  back  to  a  whip  at  about  24 
to  30  inches  from  the  ground.  As  the  buds  put  out  and  shoots  are 
produced,  these  should  be  selected  and  thinned  out  to  three  or  five  or 

'Bull.  276,  Calif.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta. 


380     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

more  scaffold  branches  which  should  be  pinched  back  to  make  them 
stocky.  These  should  be  spaced  some  distance  apart,  —  the  lowest 
at  least  eight  or  ten  inches  from  the  ground,  —  and  symmetrically 
arranged  on  the  stem.  The  following  winter  the  scaffold  branches 
should  be  shortened  to  about  three-fifths  of  their  length.  In  the 
spring  the  new  shoots  arising  from  the  scaffold  branches  (primary 
branches)  should  be  restricted  to  two  or  three  per  limb.  The  main 
stem  and  frame  limbs  should  be  kept  free  from  suckers  at  all  times. 
The  aim  in  pruning  while  the  tree  is  young  is  to  induce  the  formation 
of  a  stocky,  compact  framework.  This  should  be  accomplished  by  the 
end  of  the  second  or  third  year. 

"  After  the  framework  is  established  all  the  growth  is  left  and  the 
tree  comes  into  bearing.  From  this  time  to  the  age  of  15  or  20  years, 
the  tree  increases  slowly  in  size  and  yield.  Pruning  after  the  third  year 
should  be  confined  to  a  regular  removal  of  all  sucker  growth  arising 
from  the  root,  and  interfering  branches  as  well  as  dead  brush,  and  an 
annual  thinning  out  or  removal  of  some  of  the  older  branches.  This 
should  be  done  after  the  leaves  fall  in  winter." 

Propagation  of  the  pomegranate  is  effected  by  means  of 
seeds,  cuttings,  and  layers.  Seeds  can  be  grown  readily,  but 
named  varieties  cannot  be  reproduced  in  this  manner.  Hodgson 
writes : 

"  The  only  method  of  propagation  used  commercially  is  by  hard- 
wood cuttings.  These  will  grow  in  the  open  ground  about  as  readily 
as  willow  cuttings.  The  stand  obtained  is  very  satisfactory  and  the 
method  used  very  simple.  In  February  or  March  hardwood  cuttings 
ten  to  twelve  inches  long  and  one-quarter  to  a  half  inch  in  diameter 
are  cut,  usually  from  the  shoots  or  suckers,  and  are  planted  in  the  open 
ground  in  nursery  rows.  These  rows  are  ordinarily  three  feet  apart 
and  the  cuttings  spaced  eight  to  ten  inches  in  the  row.  The  cuttings 
should  be  thrust  almost  their  entire  length  into  the  earth,  leaving  only 
the  top  eye  exposed.  This  eye  is  forced  out  and  grows  into  the  tree. 
Cuttings  of  this  sort  grow  thriftily  and  are  often  ready  for  trans- 
planting to  the  orchard  or  hedge  by  the  following  spring,  although  they 
are  frequently  left  in  the  nursery  row  two  seasons.  Hardwood  cuttings 
are  sometimes  cut  in  the  fall  and  callused  in  sand  over  winter,  then  set 
out  in  early  spring.  This  may  result  in  a  little  earlier  growth  and 
consequently  a  larger  tree  that  season,  but  is  not  necessary  to  insure 
striking  root." 

When  grown  under  good  cultural  conditions,  the  plants  come 
into  bearing  at  three  or  four  years  of  age.  The  yield  is  influenced 


THE   POMEGRANATE   AND   THE  JUJUBE          381 

by  the  character  of  soil  and  the  method  of  pruning  followed. 
On  sandy  soils  light  crops  must  be  expected ;  and  if  suckers  are 
allowed  to  develop  unhindered,  or  if  the  mature  plant  is  pruned 
of  its  fruit-bearing  wood,  little  fruit  can  be  produced.  It  is 
necessary  to  emphasize  the  importance  of  pruning  in  connection 
with  pomegranate  culture.  A  properly  grown  tree  of  mature 
size  may  yield  200  to  400  pounds  of  fruit  annually,  but  one 
which  has  been  subjected  to  incorrect  pruning,  or  has  a  number 
of  primary  shoots  growing  from  the  base  instead  of  a  single 
trunk  with  laterals  rising  from  it,  will  certainly  give  no  such 
results. 

Regarding  the  best  methods  of  picking  and  handling  the  fruit, 
Hodgson  says : 

"  On  account  of  the  common  habit  of  splitting,  the  fruit  of  most 
varieties  must  be  picked  before  fully  mature.  .  .  .  Some  trees  will 
hold  their  fruit  until  winter  and  never  show  any  splits. 

"  Fortunately,  the  pomegranate  is  one  of  those  fruits  which,  after 
reaching  a  certain  degree  of  maturity,  continues  to  ripen  in  cold  storage, 
where  it  will  keep  in  excellent  condition  for  five  or  six  months.  Not 
only  does  it  ripen,  but  the  quality  is  improved,  the  flavor  becoming 
richer  and  more  vinous.  The  rind  shrinks  and  becomes  thinner  and 
tougher ;  the  amount  of  rag  decreases ;  and  the  seed  coats  appear  to 
become  more  tender  and  edible.  Several  pickings  should  be  made, 
the  first  about  the  first  week  in  October,  and  two  or  three  others  at 
weekly  intervals. 

"  Pomegranates  are  very  securely  attached  to  the  fruiting  wood  by 
thick,  strong  stems,  and  should  be  clipped  rather  than  pulled.  .  .  . 
After  sizing,  the  fruit  is  wrapped  in  tissue  paper  and  packed.  The 
commercial  package  used  is  the  orange  half-box.  .  .  .  The  sizes  run 
from  24  to  110  per  box." 

On  this  same  subject  Roeding  1  notes :  "  On  account  of  its 
rather  thick  skin  the  fruit  will  withstand  quite  a  lot  of  abuse. 
The  one  point  to  guard  against  is  to  pick  the  fruits  before  they 
are  rained  on,  for  \yhen  this  occurs  many  of  them  will  split, 
making  them  unfit  for  shipment.  After  they  are  gathered,  the 
fruits,  if  stored  in  a  cool,  dry  place,  will  keep  for  months ;  the 
1  Roeding' s  Fruit  Growers'  Guide. 


382     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

skin  loses  its  striking  lustre,  and  the  fruit  shrinks  some,  but 
this  in  no  way  impairs  the  quality  or  flavor  of  the  pulp." 

The  pomegranate  has  several  enemies,  both  insect  and  fun- 
gous. In  India,  the  larvae  of  the  anar  butterfly  (Virachola 
isocrates  Fabr.)  infest  the  fruit.  A  similar  insect  is  the  pome- 
granate butterfly  of  Egypt  (Virachola  lima  Klug).  Another 
lepidopterous  pest,  Cryptoblades  gnidiella  Miller,  is  also  reported 
from  Egypt.  In  California  much  damage  has  been  caused  by 
a  disease  known  as  heart-rot.  "When  an  infected  fruit  is 
opened,  the  central  cavity  is  found  filled  with  a  disgusting 
mass  of  decayed  arils,  black  in  color  and  disagreeable  in  odor. 
The  decay  usually  shows  no  connection  with  the  rind,  being 
entirely  surrounded  by  sound  flesh.  .  .  .  Infection  takes  place 
in  the  blossom  and  progress  of  the  fungus  may  be  traced  by  a 
thread-like  black  line  of  decay  from  the  stigma  down  through 
the  stylar  canal  into  the  interior  of  the  fruit."  No  remedy  has 
been  found  for  this  disease  up  to  the  present  time. 

Several  insects  occasionally  attack  the  tree  in  California, 
but  none  is  said  to  be  a  serious  pest.  In  Hawaii,  the  dreaded 
Mediterranean  fruit-fly  (Ceratitis  capitata  Wied.)  is  known  to 
infest  the  fruit. 

The  varieties  of  the  pomegranate  are  fairly  numerous.  Ibn- 
al-Awam,  a  Moor  who  wrote  in  the  thirteenth  century,  described 
about  ten  kinds  known  in  southern  Spain  at  that  time.  At 
Baghdad,  pomegranates  are  usually  divided  into  three  groups 
or  classes,  viz. :  ahmar  (red),  aswad  (black),  and  halwa  (sweet). 
Several  named  varieties  are  known  in  Mesopotamia  in  a  limited 
way,  Salimi  being  considered  the  best.  Ragawi,  Halu,  Aswad, 
and  Amlasi  are  other  forms. 

The  late  Frank  N.  Meyer,  describing  the  pomegranates  of  the 
Shantung  Province  of  China,  says  :  "There  are  dwarf  varieties 
that  grow  only  a  few  feet  tall  and  bear  but  a  few  small  scarlet 
fruits,  while  others  grow  from  15  to  30  feet  tall  and  bear  fruits 
one  or  more  pounds  in  weight.  There  are  varieties  that  have  a 


THE  POMEGRANATE  AND   THE  JUJUBE          383 

white  rind  and  are  red  inside  and  other  kinds  that  are  white 
both  outside  and  inside." 

Numerous  varieties  have  been  introduced  into  the  United 
States  from  the  Orient.  Some  of  them  are  promising,  but  none 
is  yet  established  in  the  trade.  The  following  are  the  three 
principal  varieties  planted  in  those  parts  of  the  country  where 
pomegranate  culture  is  conducted  commercially : 

Wonderful.  —  Form  oblate ;  size  very  large,  the  diameter  sometimes 
5  inches ;  base  flattened ;  apex  rounded,  crowned  with  the  prominent 
calyx ;  surface  smooth,  glossy,  deep  purple-red  in  color ;  rind  medium 
thick,  tough ;  flesh  deep  crimson  in  color,  juicy,  and  of  delicious  vinous 
flavor ;  seeds  not  very  hard. 

Origin  not  definitely  known;  it  was  propagated  at  Porterville, 
California,  in  1896,  from  a  cutting  obtained  from  Florida.  Because 
of  its  vigor  of  growth,  productiveness,  and  the  excellent  quality  of  its 
fruit,  it  has  become  the  favorite  commercial  variety  in  California. 

Paper-Shell.  —  Form  globose ;  size  large ;  surface  glossy,  pale 
yellow  washed  with  pink ;  rind  very  thin ;  flesh  bright  red  in  color, 
juicy,  and  of  pleasant  flavor ;  seeds  fairly  tender. 

Origin  not  definitely  known;  it  was  introduced  into  California 
from  the  southeastern  United  States.  It  is  not  so  vigorous  in  growth 
as  Wonderful,  nor  is  the  fruit  so  attractive,  but  it  is  productive  and  the 
fruit  has  good  shipping  qualities. 

Spanish  Ruby.  —  Form  globose ;  size  large  ;  surface  glossy,  bright 
red  in  color;  rind  moderately  thick;  flesh  crimson  in  color,  juicy,  of 
sweet  aromatic  flavor ;  seeds  f airly  tender. 

Syns.  Purple,  Purple  Seeded.  A  variety  introduced  into  California 
from  the  southeastern  United  States.  Commercially  it  is  not  im- 
portant. 

THE  JUBUBE 
(Zizyphus  spp.) 

"The  jujube,"  writes  David  Fairchild,  "is  one  of  the  five 
principal  fruits  of  China,  and  has  been  cultivated  for  at  least 
4000  years."  It  is  only  in  the  large-fruited  Chinese  varieties 
that  the  jujube  is  seen  at  its  best.  The  inferior  fruits  which  have 
been  grown  in  southern  Europe,  Arabia,  and  northern  India 
either  represent  a  different  species  from  those  of  China,  or  are 


384     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 


varieties  which  have  not  been  so  highly  improved  by  cultivation 

and  selection. 
Pliny  recounted  that  the  jujube  was  brought  from  Syria  to 

Rome  by  the  consul  Sextus  Papinius,  towards  the  end  of  the 

reign  of  Augustus.     It  has,  therefore,  been  known  in  southern 

Europe  for  more  than 
2000  years.  It  reached 
America  some  time  dur- 
ing the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, but  only  in  the 
form  of  seedlings  which 
yielded  fruit  of  poor 
quality.  With  the  in- 
troduction of  the  grafted 
Chinese  varieties,  ob- 
tained in  1906  and  sub- 
sequent years  by  the 
United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture, 
the  jujube  has  become 
a  fruit-tree  worthy  of 
the  serious  attention  of 
horticulturists,  and  this 
it  is  now  receiving 
throughout  the  south- 
ern and  western  parts 
of  the  United  States. 
The  botanv  of  this 


FIG.  50.  The langtsao,  or  "melting  jujube" 
(Ziziphus  Jujuba) ,  from  the  Province  of  Shensi, 
China,  now  grown  in  California.  The  Chinese 
varieties  of  the  jujube  are  better  than  those  of 
other  countries.  (X  i) 


fruit  is  decidedly  confused.  Two  species  are  cultivated  in  the 
Orient,  differing  but  little  from  each  other  in  botanical  or 
horticultural  characteristics.  The  Chinese  jujube  (Fig.  50) 
is  considered  to  be  Zizyphus  Jujuba,  Miller  (Z.  vulgaris,  Lam., 
Z.  sativa,  Gaertn.),  and  the  Indian  jujube,  Zizyphus  mauritiana, 
Lam.  (Z.  Jujuba,  Lam.).  The  principal  difference  between 


THE   POMEGRANATE   AND   THE  JUJUBE          385 

them  seems  to  be  that  the  leaves  of  the  first-named  are 
glabrous  while  those  of  the  second  are  tomentose  beneath. 
Further  study  will  be  required  to  show  the  proper  classification 
of  many  cultivated  forms. 

The  jujube  is  a  small,  somewhat  spiny  tree  reaching  a  height 
of  25  or  30  feet.  Its  leaves  are  alternate,  three-nerved,  elliptic- 
ovate,  ovate,  or  suborbicular  in  outline,  commonly  1J  to  3 
inches  in  length.  The  small  greenish  flowers  are  produced  upon 
slender  deciduous  branchlets,  or  occasionally  upon  the  old  wood. 
The  fruit  is  a  small  drupe,  elliptic  or  oblong  to  spherical  in  form, 
from  \  to  2  inches  in  length,  with  a  thin  dark  brown  skin,  and 
having  whitish  flesh  of  crisp  or  mealy  texture  and  sweet  agreeable 
flavor,  inclosing  a  hard  two-celled  stone,  elliptic  to  oblate  in 
form  and  rough  on  the  surface. 

In  searching  botanical  literature  for  data  regarding  the  his- 
tory and  distribution  of  the  jujube,  it  is  impossible  to  determine, 
in  many  cases,  whether  Z.  Jujitba  or  Z.  mauritiana  is  the  species 
discussed.  One  or  the  other  (probably  both  in  some  instances) 
is  cultivated  in  China,  in  the  Philippines,  through  the  Malayan 
region  to  India  and  Africa,  and  westward  through  Afghanistan, 
Persia,  Arabia,  and  Asia  Minor  to  the  Mediterranean  coast  of 
France,  Spain,  and  North  Africa.  In  China  the  general  name  is 
tsao;  in  India  Z.  Jujuba  is  called  the  common  jujube,  anab,  un- 
nab,  while  Z.  mauritiana  is  called  the  Indian  jujube,  ber,  bor,  and 
the  like.  In  Arabia  the  common  term  for  one  species  is  nabk. 

The  late  Frank  N.  Meyer,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  many 
fine  Chinese  varieties  of  this  fruit,  observed,  during  his  explora- 
tions in  China,  that  the  jujube  could  be  used  in  several  different 
ways.  The  fresh  fruits  of  some  varieties  are  excellent  to  eat 
out  of  hand.  Dried,  they  resemble  dates  in  character.  Jujubes 
are  sometimes  boiled  with  millet  and  rice ;  they  may  be  stewed 
or  baked  in  the  oven;  they  are  used,  raisin  fashion,  to  make 
jujube-bread ;  and  they  are  turned  into  glace  fruits  by  boiling 

them  in  honey  and  sugar  sirup.    Meyer  particularly  lauds  the 
2c 


386     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

mi-tsao,  or  honey-jujube.  "To  prepare  this,"  he  says,  "the 
Chinese  take  large,  sound,  dried  fruits  and  boil  them  thoroughly 
in  sugared  water,  after  which  they  are  taken  out  and  dried  in 
the  sun  or  wind  for  a  couple  of  days.  When  sufficiently  dry 
they  are  given  a  slight  boiling  again  and  are  partly  dried. 
When  dry  enough  to  be  handled,  the  skin  is  slightly  slashed 
lengthwise  with  a  few  small  knives  tied  together.  Then  the 
fruits  are  given  a  third  boiling;  now,  however,  in  a  stronger 
sugar  water,  and  for  the  best  grades  of  honey-jujube  honey  is 
added.  When  this  process  is  finished  they  are  spread  out  to 
dry,  and  when  no  longer  sticky  are  ready  to  be  sold." 

A  chemical  analysis  of  the  Chinese  jujube  made  by  the  Bureau 
of  Chemistry  at  Washington  showed  it  to  contain:  Total 
solids  31.9  per  cent,  ash  0.73,  acids  0.29,  protein  1.44,  total  sugar 
21.66  (sucrose  9.66,  invert  sugar  12.00),  fat  0.21,  hydrolyzable 
carbohydrates  2.47  and  fiber  1.28. 

Regarding  the  climatic  and  soil  requirements  of  the  jujube, 
Fairchild  l  writes : 

"  No  weather  appears  to  be  too  hot  for  it,  and  so  far  as  resistance 
to  cold  is  concerned,  it  has  withstood  temperatures  of  22°  F.  without 
injury.  Just  how  much  lower  winter  temperatures  it  will  withstand 
has  not  yet  been  determined.  The  range  of  territory,  however,  over 
which  it  is  likely  to  prove  a  success  as  a  fruit  tree  will  probably  be 
limited  more  by  the  length  of  the  summer  season  than  by  the  severity 
of  the  winter.  The  whole  Southwest,  with  the  exception  of  the  elevated 
areas  where  cold  summer  nights  occur  ...  is  a  promising  region  in 
which  to  test  the  jujube.  It  enjoys  brilliant  sunshine,  dry  weather, 
and  long,  intensely  hot  summers,  and  although  it  will  form  good  sized 
trees  under  other  conditions,  it  appears  to  require  these  climatic 
factors  to  make  it  fruit  early  in  life,  regularly,  and  abundantly. 

"As  regards  soil  conditions,  it  appears  to  withstand  slight  amounts 
of  alkali  and  to  thrive  with  special  vigor  on  the  loess,  or  wind-drifted 
soil  formations  of  China.  .  .  .  Under  irrigation  in  northern  California, 
and  without  irrigation  in  Central  Texas,  the  trees  have  grown  luxu- 
riantly and  fruited  abundantly.  In  the  warm  humid  region  of  Mary- 
land, seedling  trees  have  grown  well,  but  fruited  sparingly  and  irregu- 
larly. In  Georgia,  old  seedling  jujubes  have  fruited  well." 

1  Journal  of  Heredity,  Jan.,  1918. 


PLATE  XX.     Upper,  the  rambutan  and  other  fruits ;  lower,  a  basket 
of  green  sapotes. 


THE   POMEGRANATE   AND   THE  JUJUBE          387 

R.  L.  Beagles  1  says :  "  The  jujube  has  endured  a  temperature 
of  13°  F.  at  the  Chico  Station  without  any  perceptible  injury ; 
it  also  withstands  extreme  heat,  a  temperature  of  111°  F. 
producing  no  apparent  bad  effects  on  trees  and  young 
grafted  plants.  .  .  .  The  tree  starts  into  growth  very  late 
in  the  spring,  which  eliminates  any  danger  from  frost,  and 
makes  it  a  sure  cropper.  The  fruits  ripen  in  October  and 
November." 

Meyer2  writes  regarding  the  cultivation  of  the  jujube  in 
China : 

"  In  general,  jujubes  are  grown  in  small  groves  or  as  single  trees, 
but  here  and  there  one  also  meets  regular  orchards  of  them,  covering 
perhaps  10  or  20  acres.  In  some  localities  the  farmers  plant  them  in 
rows  through  the  fields.  It  seems  that  planted  in  this  way,  at  a 
distance  of  five  to  ten  feet  apart,  they  produce  the  largest  quantity  and 
best  quality  of  fruit.  When  in  regular  orchards  the  distance  apart 
is  from  15  to  25  feet,  depending  upon  the  variety  and  upon  the  personal 
preference  of  the  planter. 

"The  farmers,  here  and  there,  also  have  the  practice  of  ringing 
their  trees  every  year,  claiming  that  thereby  they  considerably  increase 
the  crop.  The  jujube  is  about  the  only  fruit  tree  around  the  roots  of 
which  the  soil  is  not  regularly  cultivated,  because  the  yield  is  found  to 
be  just  as  large  without  this  work  as  with  it." 

Propagation  is  effected  by  seeds,  grafting,  root-cuttings,  and 
one  or  two  other  means.  Meyer  reports  regarding  the  methods 
employed  in  China :  "  As  the  varieties  do  not  come  true  to 
seed,  the  trees  are  mostly  propagated  by  the  suckers  which  are 
nearly  always  found  at  their  bases.  Root  cuttings  can  also 
be  taken.  Some  varieties,  however,  do  not  readily  produce 
suckers,  and  root  cuttings  are  not  successful.  Then  the 
Chinese  resort  to  grafting  the  cions  on  wild  stock.  This  graft- 
ing practice,  however,  seems  to  be  confined  to  only  a  few  local- 
ities, where  the  growers  are  men  of  considerable  experience." 

1  California  Citrograph,  Oct.,  1917. 
*  Bull.  204,  Bur.  Plant  Industry. 


388     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

The  most  satisfactory  method  of  propagating  the  Chinese 
varieties  in  California  has  been  whip-grafting.  Seedling 
jujubes  are  used  for  stock-plants.  These  are  easily  grown, 
although  the  seeds  (which  are  sown  in  drills  in  the  open  ground) 
are  slow  to  germinate  and  it  takes  two  years  to  produce  a  good 
plant.  At  one  year  of  age  many  of  them  will  be  large  enough 
to  graft,  but  it  is  better  to  leave  them  until  the  second  year. 

J.  E.  Morrow,  who  has  had  experience  in  propagating  the 
jujube  at  the  United  States  Plant  Introduction  Field  Station 
at  Chico,  California,  notes  that  plants  grafted  in  February 
sometimes  grow  to  a  height  of  three  or  four  feet  before  the  end 
of  the  year  and  mature  a  few  fruits.  He  says  further : 

"  The  jujube  root  is  one  which  does  not  like  to  be  disturbed,  and  for 
quick  results,  and  where  climatic  conditions  will  permit,,  I  would  ad- 
vocate field-grafting  on  two-year-old  roots.  The  cions  are  inserted 
close  to  the  root,  and  covered  with  soil,  which  should  not,  however, 
be  over  one  inch  in  depth  above  the  top  of  the  cion,  so  that  when  the 
ground  settles  after  a  hard  rain  the  young  plant  will  still  be  able  to 
force  its  way  through  it. 

"  The  argument  in  favor  of  bench-grafting  is  this :  it  may  be  done 
when  the  soil  is  too  muddy  or  cold  to  permit  outside  work.  The  stock- 
plants  are  cut  off  just  above  the  root,  or  the  larger  roots  themselves 
are  used  as  stocks.  Upon  these  a  cion  about  four  inches  long  and  of  the 
diameter  of  a  lead  penicl  is  whip-grafted,  and  wrapped  with  raffia. 
A  wedge-graft  may  be  used  if  the  stock  is  much  larger  than  the  cion. 
The  grafts  are  then  packed  in  boxes,  between  layers  of  moistened  cedar 
or  redwood  sawdust  or  '  shingletow.'  The  box  should  be  kept  where 
temperature  remains  between  40°  and  50°.  In  about  a  month  cal- 
luses should  have  formed,  and  the  grafts  may  be  planted  in  the  field. 
Grafting  may  be  done  in  California  any  time  in  February  or  March, 
and  the  plants  should  go  into  the  field  not  later  than  April  1.  Cions 
may  be  cut  between  the  first  of  December  and  the  first  of  February, 
and  stored  until  wanted  for  use." 

The  jujube  is  precocious  and  prolific  in  fruiting,  and  rarely 
fails  to  produce  a  good  crop.  Meyer  observed  in  China  that 
the  plants  begin  to  decline  in  vigor  and  productiveness  after 
twenty-five  or  thirty  years,  and  rarely  live  more  than  forty 


THE   POMEGRANATE   AND   THE  JUJUBE          389 

years.  There  are  many  varieties  known  in  China,  and  not  a  few 
in  other  countries.  Meyer  has  described  ten  of  the  best  Chinese 
kinds  in  Bulletin  204,  quoted  above :  most  of  these  have  been 
introduced  into  the  United  States  and  some  have  already  pro- 
duced fruit  here.  The  best  are  considered  to  be  the  Yu,  the 
Mu  shing  hong,  and  the  Lang. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
THE  MANGOSTEEN  AND  ITS  RELATIVES 

OF  the  Guttiferse  or  Garcinia  family  few  plants  are  grown  for 
fruit,  and  the  mangosteen  is  the  chief  one.  It  is  a  tropical  family 
of  nearly  400  species  and  30  to  40  genera.  The  family  yields 
drugs,  gums,  and  resins. 

THE  MANGOSTEEN  (Plate  XXIV  ) 

(Garcinia  Mangostana,  L.) 

Since  the  days  when  early  voyagers  returned  to  Europe  with 
more  or  less  fabulous  stories  of  the  wonders  of  the  East,  the 
mangosteen  has  received  unstinted  praise.  It  has  been  termed 
the  "Queen  of  Fruits,"  "  the  finest  fruit  in  the  world/'  and 
Jacobus  Bontius,  who  compared  it  to  nectar  and  ambrosia,  said 
that  it  surpassed  the  golden  apples  of  the  Hesperides  and  was  "  of 
all  the  fruits  of  the  Indies  by  far  the  most  delicious."  Bontius 
was  warranted  in  his  enthusiasm.  The  combination  of  beauti- 
ful coloring  with  delicate  enticing  flavor  entitles  the  mangosteen 
to  rank  above  all  other  fruits  of  the  Asiatic  tropics.  Indeed, 
it  is  doubtful  whether  the  world  possesses  another  tropical 
fruit  which  is  its  equal.  It  compares  favorably  with  the  most 
delicately  flavored  fruits  of  the  Temperate  Zone;  Europeans 
and  Americans  who  have  been  accustomed  to  the  finely  flavored 
peaches,  nectarines,  and  pears  of  northern  orchards  find  it 
delicious  and  unexceptionable,  although  they  may  criticize  other 
tropical  fruits  as  being  insipid  or  mawkish. 

390 


THE   MANGOSTEEN   AND  ITS  RELATIVES        391 

Yet,  strangely  enough,  this  "prize  of  the  Indies,"  admitted 
by  all  to  be  the  finest  fruit  of  the  tropics,  remains  to  this  day 
extremely  limited  in  its  distribution,  and  known  only  to  the 
favored  few  who  have  lived  or  traveled  in  the  East  Indies. 
David  Fairchild,  who  has  studied  its  requirements  more  ex- 
haustively than  any  other  man,  is  convinced  "  that  the  acclima- 
tization of  the  mangosteen  on  the  island  of  Porto  Rico,  and  in 
many  other  parts  of  tropical  America,  is  a  possibility,  and  that 
the  principal  difficulties  of  its  culture  have  probably  arisen 
from  an  ignorance  of  the  soil  conditions  demanded  by  the 
plant."  Trees  have  fruited  in  Jamaica,  Dominica,  and  Trinidad. 
There  is  a  fruiting  tree  in  Hawaii  and  a  few  others  are  scattered 
throughout  the  tropics  in  regions  where  it  would  have  been 
said  a  few  years  ago  that  mangosteens  could  not  be  grown. 
There  are  grounds  for  the  hope,  therefore,  that  commercial 
production  of  this  delectable  fruit  will  not  remain  limited  to  a 
remote  region  in  the  eastern  tropics. 

The  mangosteen  is  a  small  tree  rarely  over  30  feet  high,  with 
deep  green  foliage  which  glistens  in  the  sunlight.  The  leaves 
are  elliptic-oblong  in  form,  acuminate  at  the  tip,  thick  and 
leathery  in  texture,  and  6  to  10  inches  long.  The  flowers  are 
polygamous;  the  staminate  or  male  blossoms  are  borne  in 
three-  to  nine-flowered  terminal  fascicles,  and  have  orbicular 
sepals  and  broadly  ovate,  fleshy  petals.  The  hermaphrodite 
flower  is  2  inches  broad,  and  is  borne  solitary  or  in  pairs  at  the 
tips  of  the  young  branches.  The  sepals  and  petals  resemble 
those  of  the  male  flower.  The  stamens  are  many,  the  ovary  four- 
to  eight-celled,  with  a  sessile,  eight-rayed  stigma. 

"  This  delicious  fruit  is  about  the  size  of  a  mandarin  orange,  round 
and  slightly  flattened  at  each  end,  with  a  smooth,  thick  rind,  rich 
red-purple  in  color,  with  here  and  there  a  bright,  hardened  drop  of 
the  yellow  juice  which  marks  some  injury  to  the  rind  when  it  was 
young.  As  these  mangosteens  are  sold  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies, 
—  heaped  up  on  fruit  baskets,  or  made  into  long  regular  bundles  with 
thin  strips  of  braided  bamboo,  —  they  are  as  strikingly  handsome  as 


392     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

anything  of  the  kind  could  well  be,  but  it  is  only  when  the  fruit  is 
opened  that  its  real  beauty  is  seen.  The  rind  is  thick  and  tough, 
and  in  order  to  get  at  the  pulp  inside,  it  requires  a  circular  cut  with 
a  sharp  knife  to  lift  the  top  half  off  like  a  cap,  exposing  the  white 
segments,  five,  six,  or  seven  in  number,  lying  loose  in  the  cup.  The 
cut  surface  of  the  rind  is  of  a  moist  delicate  pink  color  and  is  studded 
with  small  yellow  points  formed  by  the  drops  of  exuding  juice.  As 
one  lifts  out  of  this  cup,  one  by  one,  the  delicate  segments,  which  are 
the  size  and  shape  of  those  of  a  mandarin  orange,  the  light  pink  sides 
of  the  cup  and  the  veins  of  white  and  yellow  embedded  in  it  are  visible. 
The  separate  segments  are  between  snow  white  and  ivory  in  color, 
and  are  covered  with  a  delicate  network  of  fibers,  and  the  side  of  each 
segment  where  it  presses  against  its  neighbor  is  translucent  and  slightly 
tinged  with  pale  green.  The  texture  of  the  mangosteen  pulp  much 
resembles  that  of  a  well-ripened  plum,  only  it  is  so  delicate  that  it 
melts  in  the  mouth  like  a  bit  of  ice-cream.  The  flavor  is  quite  in- 
describably delicious.  There  is  nothing  to  mar  the  perfection  of  this 
fruit,  unless  it  be  that  the  juice  from  the  rind  forms  an  indelible  stain 
on  a  white  napkin.  Even  the  seeds  are  partly  or  wholly  lacking, 
and  when  present  are  very  thin  and  small."  (Fairchild.) 

Regarding  the  native  home  of  the  mangosteen,  the  classical 
Alphonse  DeCandolle  says  :  "The  species  is  certainly  wild  in  the 
forests  of  the  Sunda  Islands  and  of  the  Malay  Peninsula. 
Among  cultivated  plants  it  is  one  of  the  most  local,  both  in  its 
origin,  habitation,  and  in  cultivation.  It  belongs,  it  is  true,  to 
one  of  those  families  in  which  the  mean  area  of  the  species  is 
most  restricted." 

The  mangosteen  is  a  common  dooryard  tree  in  the  East 
Indies,  particularly  in  Java  and  Sumatra.  Much  of  the  fruit 
sold  in  the  markets  comes  from  scattered  trees.  There  are  a 
few  small  orchards  in  Malacca  and  the  Straits  Settlements. 
The  largest  orchard  in  the  world  (containing,  however,  only 
300  or  400  trees)  is  situated  near  Saigon,  in  Cochin-China. 
A  few  small  orchards  have  been  started  in  Ceylon,  but  mango- 
steens  are  not  as  abundant  in  that  island  as  they  are  in  the 
Malay  Archipelago.  So  far  as  is  known,  the  tree  is  not  com- 
monly grown  anywhere  in  India,  but  there  are  said  to  be  a  few 
specimens  in  the  Madras  Presidency.  Mangosteens  grown  in 


THE   MANGOSTEEN   AND   ITS   RELATIVES        393 

the  Sulu  Archipelago  of  the  Philippines  are  often  seen  in  the 
markets  of  Manila. 

Concerning  the  behavior  of  this  plant  in  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  Gerrit  P.  Wilder  says :  "  Many  mangosteen  trees  have 
been  brought  to  Hawaii,  and  have  received  intelligent  care, 
but  they  have  not  thrived  well,  and  have  eventually  died. 
Only  two  have  ever  produced  fruit,  one  in  the  garden  of  Mr. 
Francis  Gay  of  Kauai,  which  bears  its  fruit  annually,  and  the 
other  at  Lahaina,  Maui,  in  the  garden  formerly  the  property  of 
Mr.  Harry  Turton." 

Joseph  Jones,  curator  of  the  Botanic  Station  at  Dominica,  in 
the  British  West  Indies,  writes  in  the  Agricultural  News 
(March  4,  1911): 

"  At  the  Point  Mulatre  estate,  Dominica,  two  fine  mangosteen 
trees,  thirteen  years  old,  are  now  fruiting  for  the  first  time.  One 
specimen  is  bearing  several  dozen  fruits,  and  the  other  a  single  fruit. 
There  are  known  to  be  four  bearing  mange  steen  trees  in  Dominica. 
As  quite  a  number  of  estates  possess  a  few  young  specimens  of  this 
interesting  tree,  it  is  probable  that  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  the  fruit 
will  be  fairly  well  known  in  the  island,  and  may,  in  course  of  time, 
be  available  for  export. 

"  One  point  in  this  connection  is  worthy  of  notice.  The  seedlings 
raised  from  trees  established  in  the  West  Indies  show  much  greater 
vigor,  and  thrive  better,  than  did  the  original  imported  plants.  This 
is  probably  due  to  acclimatization.  With  this  increased  vigor,  and 
with  great  care  in  growing  and  selecting  land  and  position,  it  may  be 
possible  to  bring  trees  into  fruit  during  their  ninth  or  tenth  year." 

The  Trinidad  and  Tobago  Bulletin  for  January,  1914,  says : 

"  In  Government  House  Gardens  there  is  a  tree  of  the  mangosteen 
which  has  now  borne  fruit  more  or  less  regularly  for  several  years. 
There  are  also  a  few  other  fruiting  trees  in  the  Colony,  e.g.,  at  Arima 
in  the  grounds  of  Mr.  J.  G.  de  Gannes  and  at  Monte  Cristo  estate, 
the  property  of  Mr.  H.  Monceaux. 

"In  addition  to  the  old  tree  in  the  Government  House  Gardens 
there  is  another  which  has  not  yet  borne  fruit,  and  a  group  at  St. 
Clair  Experiment  Station.  The  latter  are  now  11  years  old  and  this 
month  (January,  1914)  one  of  them  bore  a  single  fruit  for  the  first 
time.  The  age  of  this  tree  is  definitely  known  as  they  were  planted 


394     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

personally  by  Mr.  J.  C.  Augustus,  now  the  Curator  of  the  Gardens. 
It  will  be  of  interest  to  know  from  others  who  have  trees  of  any 
definite  records  of  the  age  at  which  they  begin  to  bear  fruit  in  the 
Colony." 

A  number  of  trees  have  been  planted  in  Cuba,  the  Canal 
Zone,  and  Porto  Rico,  but  so  far  as  known  none  of  them  is  yet 
fruiting.  In  California  and  Florida  there  appears  to  be  little 
hope  for  the  mangosteen,  since  it  is  highly  susceptible  to  frost- 
injury.  If  stock-plants  are  discovered  which  will  impart 
hardiness,  there  is  a  possibility  that  it  may  yet  be  grown  in  the 
most  protected  situations  in  southern  Florida. 

The  name  mangosteen  (in  French  mangoustan)  is  of  Malayan 
origin.  Yule  and  Burnell  derive  it  "from  Malay  manggusta 
(Crawfurd),  or  manggistan  (Favre),  in  Javanese  manggis.  .  .  . 
This  delicious  fruit  is  known  throughout  the  Archipelago,  and  in 
Siam,  by  modifications  of  the  same  name."  Botanically  the 
species  is  Garcinia  Mangostana,  L. 

The  fruit  is  eaten  fresh.  The  rind,  or  the  entire  fruit  dried, 
is  used  medicinally  in  India.  It  contains  tannin  and  a  crystal- 
lizable  substance  known  as  mangostin.  According  to  Carl 
Wehmer  1  the  fresh  fruit  contains  sugar  as  follows  :  Saccharose 
10.8,  dextrose  1,  and  levulose  1.2. 

Cultivation. 

Horticultural  writers  have  asserted  that  the  mangosteen 
can  be  grown  only  within  four  or  five  degrees  of  the  equator. 
Experience  has  shown  that  such  a  statement  is  not  warranted 
by  facts.  It  is  true  that  the  tree  is  strictly  tropical  in  its 
requirements  and  that  its  demands  in  regard  to  soil  conditions 
are  definite.  There  is  no  reason,  however,  to  assume  that  it 
will  not  be  possible  to  grow  mangosteens  successfully  through- 
out the  tropics  wherever  these  conditions  can  be  met.  Fair- 
child  considers  that  the  unduly  limited  distribution  of  the 
1  Die  Pflanzenstoff e. 


THE   MANGOSTEEN   AND  ITS   RELATIVES        395 

tree  is  due  to  the  difficulty  which  young  plants  have  in  estab- 
lishing themselves,  and  he  believes  that  a  vast  extension  of 
mangosteen  culture  will  take  place  when  the  root-system  of 
this  tree  is  thoroughly  understood.  "This  may  come  about 
through  the  use  of  stocks  which  are  less  particular  in  their 
soil  requirements.  George  Oliver's  experiments  have  proved 
that  the  mangosteen  can  successfully  be  inarched  upon  a 
number  of  the  related  species  of  the  same  genus."  Thus,  on 
Garcinia  xanthochymus ,  a  vigorous  and  hardy  species,  it  has 
done  remarkably  well.  Since  more  than  150  species  of  Garcinia 
are  known,  there  should  be  excellent  possibilities  of  obtaining 
a  stock-plant  which  will  produce  robust  mangosteen  trees 
on  soils  where  they  will  not  grow  successfully  on  their  own 
roots. 

The  mangosteen  does  not  withstand  frost,  but  the  behavior 
of  trees  in  Cuba  and  elsewhere  shows  that  it  is  not  injured  by 
merely  cool  weather;  that  is,  the  constantly  high  temperatures 
of  the  equatorial  belt  are  not  essential  to  its  success.  Like  the 
breadfruit  and  a  few  other  strictly  tropical  species,  it  does  not 
like  temperatures  below  40°  or  thereabouts.  In  Ceylon  and 
Singapore  the  best  orchards  are  on  soils  having  a  high  clay- 
content,  combined  with  plenty  of  coarse  material  and  a  small 
amount  of  silt,  and  where  the  water-table  stands  about  six  feet 
below  the  surface.  "  The  impression  is  current,"  says  Fairchild, 
"  that  the  mangosteen  requires  a  wet  but  well-drained  soil  and  a 
very  humid  atmosphere.  While  the  former  statement  appears 
to  be  true,  the  latter  is  not  so,  for  the  tree  which  has  fruited  on 
the  island  of  Kauai  (Hawaii)  is  in  a  dry  but  irrigated  part  of 
the  island,  with  only  six  inches  of  rainfall,  where  it  has  to  be 
irrigated  twice  a  month." 

The  observations  made  by  Fairchild  during  his  studies  of 
mangosteen  culture  in  the  Orient  are  of  such  importance  that 
it  is  worth  while  to  reproduce  some  of  them  here.  He  writes  of 
his  visit  to  W.  H.  Wright  at  Mirigama,  Ceylon  : 


396     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

"  His  orchard  consisted,  at  the  time  of  my  visit  in  1902,  of  23 
trees  and  was  then  probably  the  largest  in  the  colony.  It  was  from 
eight  to  ten  years  old,  having  been  planted  with  two-year-old  trees 
which  were  sent  him  as  a  present  from  the  Malay  peninsula.  The 
selection  of  a  site  for  his  orchard  was  a  very  happy  one ;  a  moist  spot 
in  his  coconut  plantation,  a  part  of  which  had  at  one  time  been  used 
as  a  rice  field.  The  ground  was  so  moist  that  open  drains  were  cut 
through  it  to  carry  off  the  superfluous  water  and  these  are  still  kept 
in  order.  The  soil  of  the  squares  on  which  the  trees  are  growing  is 
so  moist  and  soft  that,  were  it  not  for  a  layer  of  coconut  husks,  one's 
feet  would  sink  in  up  to  the  ankle  as  he  walks  across  them.  The 
roots,  under  these  circumstances,  are  bathed  continually  in  fresh, 
not  stagnant,  moisture.  Mr.  Wright  attributes  his  success  in  growing 
mangosteens  to  the  fact  that  he  has  planted  them  on  soil  that  never 
dries  out,  but  has,  at  a  few  feet  from  the  surface,  a  continual  supply 
of  fresh  moisture.  The  water  in  his  well,  near  by,  is  six  feet  from  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  H.  L.  Daniel,  who  has  been  for  15  years 
trying  to  grow  this  fruit,  and  who,  during  that  time,  has  planted  over 
a  hundred  young  trees,  assures  me  that  this  is  one  of  the  secrets  of 
the  culture  of  this  difficult  fruit,  and  gives  Mr.  Wright  credit  for 
first  finding  it  out. 

"Another  important  detail  relates  to  the  matter  of  transplanting 
the  young  seedlings.  Mr.  Daniel  plants  the  seeds  in  a  small  pot 
or  coconut  husk,  and  keeps  them  well  watered  and  slightly  shaded 
with  a  coarse  matting  of  coconut  leaves.  He  transplants  them  from 
this  small  pot  to  a  larger  one  when  the  roots  have  filled  it ;  and  in 
removing  he  cuts  off  the  tap-root  if  the  latter  is  exposed.  For  two 
years  these  young  plants  are  kept  in  pots  and  grow  to  a  height  of  two 
to  two  and  a  half  feet.  It  is  useless  to  transplant  them  before  they 
are  at  least  two  feet  high,  for  the  check  given  them,  if  too  young, 
by  the  transplanting  is  so  great  that  they  refuse  to  grow. 

"  When  transplanted,  the  plants  are  set  in  a  hole  three  feet  cube 
in  size.  Stiff  soil  is  best  but  is  not  absolutely  necessary,  as  they  will 
grow  in  a  light  soil  if  the  subsoil  is  a  good  paddy  mud.  From  the 
first  the  young  trees  should  be  shaded  with  a  matting  of  coconut 
leaves,  which  is  suspended  two  feet  or  so  above  the  top  of  the  plant. 
This  is  to  prevent  wilting  and  subsequent  death  of  the  two  red,  partly 
developed  leaves,  which  first  appear  from  the  seed,  and  which  must 
be  kept  alive  if  the  plant  is  to  make  a  rapid  growth.  If  these  pre- 
cautions of  potting,  shading,  and  selection  of  soil  are  followed,  trees 
should  come  into  bearing  seven  years  from  seed,  producing  a  small  crop 
of  a  hundred  fruits  or  so.  The  subsequent  treatment  of  the  mangosteen 
orchard  seems  to  be  very  simple,  —  no  pruning  of  any  kind  is  commonly 
practiced,  although  it  might  be  advisable  to  prune ;  and  little  culti- 
vating is  done.  A  mulch  of  coconut  husks  about  the  base  of  the  tree 


THE   MANGOSTEEN   AND   ITS   RELATIVES         397 

to  keep  the  surface  soil  continually  moist,  and  the  application  of  a 
small  amount  of  earth  from  the  poultry-yard,  sprinkled  about  under- 
neath the  trees  each  year,  are  the  only  attentions  given  them.  Whether 
or  not  artificial  fertilizers  could  be  employed  with  profitable  effect 
is  a  question  that  has  not  been  answered." 

In  the  same  article  *  Fairchild  writes  of  mangosteen  culture 
in  another  region  : 

"  In  Singapore  there  are  some  small  mangosteen  orchards,  that 
is,  mangosteens  mixed  with  other  fruits.  One  which  is  easily  acces- 
sible lies  on  the  well-known  road  to  the  Botanic  Gardens,  some  two 
miles  from  the  Raffles  Hotel.  The  land  is  low  and  wet  and  several 
drainage  canals  cut  it  up  into  large,  square  blocks.  The  soil  is  clay 
and  evidently  saturated  with  moisture.  About  each  tree  is  a  cir- 
cular bit  of  cultivated  soil,  the  rest  being  in  grass,  and  scattered 
over  the  bare  soil  under  the  trees  is  a  mulch  of  leaves  and  coconut 
husks.  I  do  not  know  how  old  the  orchard  is,  but  it  is  presumably 
about  30  years  of  age.  .  .  .  Dr.  Ridley,  then  Director  of  the  Botanic 
Gardens  in  Singapore,  remarked  that  though  apparently  in  excellent 
condition  this  orchard  was  not  productive.  It  was  his  belief  that  it 
needed  pruning  and  his  experience  with  a  tree  in  Government  House 
Gardens  bears  out  his  belief.  He  cut  out  the  innermost  branches 
from  one  of  the  lot  of  old  mangosteen  trees  there,  which  had  not 
borne  well  for  years,  and  as  a  consequence  it  produced,  the  next  year, 
an  abundance  of  fruit.  His  opinion  is  that  the  trees  should  regularly 
be  pruned  of  all  the  small  inner  branches." 

Regarding  the  behavior  of  the  mangosteen  in  Hawaii,  Fair- 
child  says :  "  Francis  Gay,  who  planted  the  tree  at  Makaweli, 
Kauai,  wrote  that  where  the  tree  is  growing  the  water  is  about 
six  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  soil,  that  the  tree  is  irrigated 
twice  or  three  times  a  month,  and  that  the  rainfall  of  the  region 
is  six  to  seven  inches  a  year.  This  tree  of  Mr.  Gay's  is  about  25 
years  old,  fruited  first  when  ten  years  old  and  now  bears  only 
a  few  fruits  per  year.  ...  It  stands  about  15  feet  above  sea- 
level  in  a  spot  well-protected  from  the  winds  by  windbreaks 
and  is  growing  on  a  sandy,  alluvial  soil." 

1  Journal  of  Heredity,  Aug.,  1915. 


398     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

Propagation. 

The  work  of  George  W.  Oliver  in  the  greenhouses  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  at  Washington  has  thrown  much 
light  on  the  requirements  of  young  mangosteen  plants,  and  on 
the  best  methods  of  propagation.  The  following  extracts  are 
taken  from  his  report  in  Bulletin  202  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant 
Industry,  "The  Seedling-inarch  and  Nurse-plant  Methods  of 
Propagation." 

"  Few  plants  show  the  results  of  inattention  on  the  part  of  the 
cultivator  more  plainly  than  the  mangosteen.  When  once  a  plant 
becomes  in  the  least  sickly,  there  is  little  likelihood  of  its  recovery 
on  its  own  roots.  The  mangosteen  does  not  take  kindly  to  heavy 
soils ;  it  prefers  a  well-drained  soil  containing  a  large  proportion  of 
decayed  vegetable  matter.  When  seedlings  are  removed  from  flats 
and  put  in  pots  some  will  die  without  apparent  cause.  An  over- 
supply  of  water  causing  the  soil  to  become  in  the  least  sour  is  certain 
to  induce  sickness  much  more  quickly  in  the  mangosteen  than  in 
other  species  of  the  genus.  Therefore,  great  care  is  necessary  in 
handling  the  plants,  especially  in  the  early  stages  of  the  seedlings. 

"  Unfortunately  the  mangosteen  is  not  a  strong-rooting  plant, 
especially  during  the  first  year  or  two  after  germination.  This  pecul- 
iarity renders  it  particularly  sensitive  to  dry  weather  and  may  account 
in  part  for  the  many  failures  to  grow  it  successfully.  Nearly  all 
the  other  species  of  the  genus  have  strong  and  abundant  roots,  even 
in  the  seedling  stages.  It  therefore  seems  likely  that  the  mangosteen 
will  thrive  better  and  under  more  widely  varying  soil  and  atmospheric 
conditions  if  the  young  plant  is  inarched  to  some  species  of  the  genus 
which  has  a  good  root  system. 

"  The  genus  Garcinia  is  a  large  one,  the  Index  Kewensis  listing 
228  species.  Of  these  about  20  have  been  tried  in  the  inarching 
experiments;  and  while  the  mangosteen  unites  with  all  of  them, 
only  a  few  can  be  recommended  as  promising  stock-plants.  Two 
other  genera  of  the  same  family,  Calophyllum  and  Platonia,  have 
been  tried.  Two  species  of  Calophyllum,  C.  calaba  and  C.  inophyllum, 
are  not  satisfactory  because  the  union  between  these  and  the  mango- 
steen is  imperfect.  This  is  partly  because  the  stems  of  the  Calophyllums 
are  softer  than  those  of  the  seedling  mangosteen  and  partly  because 
the  growth  made  by  the  former  as  they  become  older"  is  much  more 
rapid.  Platonia  insignis  (see  below),  on  the  other  hand,  so  far  as 
the  experimental  work  has  progressed,  is  a  very  promising  stock 
from  one  to  three  years  after  germination,  and  if  it  will  grow  under 


THE   MANGOSTEEN   AND  ITS   RELATIVES        399 

the  conditions  suitable  for  the  mangosteen,  it  may  turn  out  to  be 
the  best  stock  of  all  those  tried.  The  most  promising  species  of 
Garcinia  for  use  as  stock-plants  for  the  mangosteen  are  G.  tinctoria, 
G.  morella,  and  G.  Livingstonei,  in  the  order  named,  the  last  a  native 
of  Portuguese  East  Africa.  The  two  first  named  are  from  the  Malay 
Peninsula." 

Recent  experiments  have  shown  that  G.  xanthochymus  is  also 
promising.  It  is  vigorous  in  growth,  and  adapted  to  many 
types  of  soil.  Inarching  the  mangosteen  is  a  simple  process, 
essentially  the  same  as  inarching  the  mango.  Oliver  says 
further : 

"None  of  the  species  of  Garcinia  used  as  stocks  are  difficult  to 
raise  from  seeds,  provided  they  are  fresh.  They  are  easiest  to  ger- 
minate when  sown  in  soil  composed  largely  of  partially  decomposed 
leaves,  mixed  with  a  little  loam  and  rough-grained  sand.  They 
should  be  potted  as  soon  as  the  first  leaves  are  well  developed.  All 
the  Garcinias  with  the  exception  of  G.  Mangostana  have  magnificent 
root  systems  and  they  thrive  under  ordinary  treatment  in  so  far  as 
soil  watering  and  a  considerable  range  of  temperature  are  concerned. 

"It  is  an  important  point  to  have  the  stock  plants  in  an  active 
stage  of  growth  when  the  union  is  in  progress,  though  the  seedling 
mangosteens  may  be  inarched  while  apparently  dormant.  Although 
the  unions  when  both  stock  and  cion  are  in  a  resting  stage  are  fairly 
satisfactory,  the  difference  in  growth  is  easily  observable  when  the 
stock  plants  are  in  active  growth.  To  secure  this  active  growth  the 
stocks  should  be  allowed  to  become  dormant;  then,  when  they  are 
given  larger  pots,  good  drainage,  and  soil  composed  of  rotted  leaves, 
at  least  one-half,  and  the  rest  fibrous  loam  containing  a  little  rough- 
grained  sand,  together  with  some  rough  charcoal  and  crushed  bone, 
they  will  under  high  temperature  respond  with  vigorous  growth. 
When  inarched  in  this  condition  the  union  is  always  satisfactory. 

"  All  plants  used  as  stocks  have  been  from  one  to  three  years  old. 
Within  that  period  the  age  of  the  stocks  seems  to  make  little  dif- 
ference, especially  when  used  as  nurse  stocks.  Mangosteen  seed- 
lings seven  months  old  united  on  nurse-stocks  of  three-year-old  Gar- 
cinia tinctoria  made  very  fine  unions,  and  within  six  months  after 
the  union  some  of  the  mangosteen  stems  were  almost  as  thick  as  those 
of  the  stocks." 

P.  J.  Wester  states  that  the  mangosteen  can  be  budded,  and 
says  :  "  Use  mature,  green  and  smooth,  nonpetioled  budwood ; 


400     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

cut  the  buds  an  inch  and  a  half  long ;  insert  the  buds  in  the 
stock  at  a  point  of  the  same  appearance  as  the  cion  or  at  most 
where  it  is  streaked  with  gray." 

These  methods  of  propagating  the  mangosteen  are  of  recent 
inception  but  they  promise  to  be  of  immense  value  in  extending 
the  area  in  which  the  tree  can  be  grown,  as  well  as  in  permitting 
the  establishment  of  superior  varieties,  which  is  not  possible 
when  seed-propagation  is  the  only  means  used.  Fairchild 
writes :  "  When  one  considers  that  so  far  no  selection  of  varie- 
ties of  the  mangosteen  has  been  made,  notwithstanding  the 
fact  that  practically  seedless  fruits  are  of  frequent  occurrence, 
and  further  that  the  tree  belongs  to  a  large  genus  of  fruit- 
bearing  trees,  at  least  fifteen  of  which  are  known  to  bear  edible 
fruits,  some  of  them  as  large  as  small  melons,  and  that  these  are 
scattered  in  Australia,  the  Malay  region,  South  China,  Africa, 
Brazil,  and  Central  America,  it  becomes  evident  that  in  the 
development  and  breeding  of  the  mangosteen  and  in  the  dis- 
covery of  a  suitable  stock  for  it,  there  lies  a  most  promising  field 
for  horticultural  research." 

Season  and  enemies  of  the  mangosteen. 

Seedling  trees  may  begin  to  bear  fruit  when  seven  or  eight 
years  old,  but  it  is  rare  for  them  to  do  so  before  the  ninth 
year.  It  is  not  yet  known  how  many  years  will  be  required  for 
an  inarched  or  budded  tree  to  come  into  bearing.  In  Ceylon 
the  trees  are  said  to  bloom  twice  a  year,  once  in  August  and 
again  in  January.  The  fruit  from  the  first  crop  of  flowers 
ripens  in  January,  and  that  from  the  second  in  July  and  August. 
In  Trinidad  the  fruiting  seasons  are  said  to  be  July  and 
October.  The  January  crop  in  Ceylon  is  a  light  one,  not  over 
100  fruits  to  a  tree,  while  in  the  August  crop  500  to  600  fruits 
a  tree  may  be  expected. 

As  to  marketing,  Fairchild  says :  "Although  the  mangosteen 
is  a  very  delicate  fruit,  it  has  an  exceedingly  tough,  thick  rind, 


PLATE  XXI.    A  young  kaki  tree  in  bearing. 


THE  MANGOSTEEN  AND  ITS  RELATIVES        401 

and  on  this  account  it  is  likely  to  be  a  good  shipper.  Fruits 
which  were  sent  in  cold  storage  to  Washington  from  Trinidad 
were  excellent  when  eaten  twenty-one  days  later,  even  though 
they  had  been  out  of  cold  storage  over  a  week."  Shipments 
are  regularly  made  from  the  Straits  Settlements  to  the  markets 
of  Calcutta.  When  the  fruits  decay,  the  rind  hardens  instead 
of  becoming  soft. 

Little  is  known  regarding  the  enemies  of  the  mangosteen. 
WT.  N.  C.  Belgrave l  reports  a  fungous  parasite,  Zignoella 
gardnece,  which  causes  the  formation  of  cankers  on  the  stems, 
working  back  from  the  young  to  the  older  branches.  When 
the  latter  have  been  attacked,  the  foliage  withers  and  eventually 
the  entire  tree  dies.  As  a  combative  measure  it  is  recommended 
to  cut  and  burn  trees  which  are  attacked,  in  order  to  check  the 
spread  of  the  disease. 

There  are  as  yet  no  named  varieties  of  the  mangosteen  in 
cultivation. 

THE  MAMEY 
(Mammea  americana,  L.) 

Christopher  Columbus,  after  his  first  visit  to  Veragua  in  1502, 
is  said  to  have  described  the  mamey  as  a  fruit  the  size  of  a 
large  lemon,  with  the  flavor  of  the  peach.  Gonzalo  Hernandez 
de  Oviedo,  about  twenty  years  later,  described  it  more  fully  and 
reported  it  as  most  excellent. 

As  a  horticultural  product,  the  mamey  remains  in  very 
much  the  same  position  which  it  occupied  at  the  time  of  the 
Discovery.  It  is  a  dooryard  tree,  nowhere  cultivated  on  a 
commercial  scale,  but  considered  by  the  Indians  a  delicious  fruit. 
Europeans  who  have  settled  in  tropical  America  have  learned 
that  it  yields  a  preserve  which  tastes  remarkably  like  that  made 
from  the  apricot. 

1  Agr.  Bull,  of  the  Federated  Malay  States,  3,  1915. 

2D 


402     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

The  tree,  which  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  conspicuous 
in  the  West  Indies,  reaches  60  feet  in  height.  Its  trunk  some- 
times attains  a  diameter  of  3  or  4  feet,  while  the  crown  is  of  a 
deeper  and  richer  green  than  that  of  most  other  trees.  The 
leaves  are  oblong-obovate  in  form,  rounded  or  blunt  at  the 
apex,  4  to  8  inches  long,  and  thick  and  glossy.  The  white 
flowers,  which  are  solitary  or  clustered  in  the  axils  of  the  young 
shoots,  are  fragrant  and  about  an  inch  broad.  The  petals  are 
four  to  six  in  number,  the  anthers  numerous,  and  the  stigma 
peltate.  The  fruit  is  oblate  to  round  in  form,  and  commonly 
4  to  6  inches  in  diameter.  It  has  a  slightly  roughened  russet 
surface  and  a  leathery  skin  about  J  inch  thick.  Surrounding 
the  one  to  four  large  seeds  and  often  adhering  to  them  is  the 
bright  yellow  flesh,  juicy  but  of  firm  texture.  The  flavor  is 
subacid  and  pleasant,  but  the  texture  is  so  close  that  the  fruit 
is  commonly  thought  better  when  stewed. 

The  mamey  is  considered  indigenous  in  the  West  Indies 
and  the  northern  part  of  South  America.  Outside  of  its  native 
region  it  is  grown  in  Mexico  and  Central  America,  and  occasion- 
ally in  other  regions,  but  it  has  not  become  common  anywhere 
in  the  Orient,  so  far  as  is  known.  It  is  successfully  cultivated  in 
southern  Florida  as  far  north  as  Palm  Beach.  Though  not 
common  in  this  region,  fine  specimens  are  occasionally  seen  at 
Miami  and  other  places.  It  is  not  grown  in  California,  being 
too  susceptible  to  frost  for  any  part  of  that  state. 

Mamey,  the  name  by  which  this  fruit  was  known  to  the  first 
Spanish  settlers  in  the  New  World,  is  considered  to  have  come 
from  the  aboriginal  language  of  the  island  of  Santo  Domingo. 
From  it  have  arisen  the  English  common  names  mammee  and 
mammee-apple,  both  widely  used  in  the  West  Indies.  The 
term  mamey  de  Santo  Domingo  is  sometimes  used  in  Cuba  and 
other  Spanish-speaking  countries  to  distinguish  the  species 
from  the  mamey  Colorado  or  mamey  zapote  (Lucuma  mammosa). 
In  southern  Brazil  it  is  known  as  abrico  do  Para  (Para  apricot). 
The  most  usual  French  name  is  abricot  de  Saint  Domingue. 


THE   MANGOSTEEN   AND  ITS   RELATIVES        403 

From  the  fragrant  white  flowers  a  liqueur  is  distilled  in  the 
French  West  Indies  which  is  known  as  eau  de  Creole  or  creme  de 
Creole.  The  wood  is  hard,  durable,  and  well  adapted  to  build- 
ing purposes.  It  is  beautifully  grained  and  takes  a  high  polish. 
The  resinous  gum  obtained  from  the  bark  is  used  to  extract 
chigoes  from  the  feet. 

The  fruit  is  sometimes  sliced  and  served  with  wine  or  with 
sugar  and  cream,  but  it  is  usually  preferred  by  Europeans  in  the 
form  of  sauce,  preserves,  or  jam.  Mamey  preserves  are  manufac- 
tured commercially  in  Cuba  and  a  few  other  tropical  countries. 

The  mamey  is  tropical  in  its  requirements,  and  cannot  be 
grown  in  regions  which  commonly  experience  more  than  two  or 
three  degrees  of  frost.  Large  trees  were  cut  back  to  the  trunks 
by  a  freeze  of  26°  above  zero  at  Miami,  Florida.  While  the  best 
soil  for  it  is  a  rich,  well-drained,  sandy  loam,  the  tree  has  made 
good  growth  on  the  shallow  sandy  lands  of  southeastern  Florida. 
Little  attention  has  been  given  to  its  culture  in  any  region. 
Seedlings  do  not  come  into  bearing  under  six  or  seven  years  of 
age ;  when  mature  they  usually  bear  regularly  and  abundantly. 
The  ripening  season  in  the  West  Indies  is  in  the  summer. 

Propagation  is  usually  by  seeds,  which  germinate  readily  if 
planted  in  light  sandy  loam.  Some  asexual  method  should  be  em- 
ployed to  propagate  desirable  varieties  originating  as  chance  seed- 
lings. Inarching,  which  succeeds  with  the  mangosteen,  should  be 
applicable  to  this  plant  as  well ;  budding  may  also  prove  to  be 
successful,  performed  as  with  the  mango;  No  named  varieties 
have  been  established  as  yet.  It  will  be  worth  while  to  search  out 
the  best  existing  seedlings  in  tropical  America  and  propagate  them. 

THE  BAKURI 
(Platonia  insignis,  Mart.) 

In  northern  Brazil,  particularly  in  the  Amazon  region,  the 
bakuri  occurs  wild.  It  is  scarcely  known  in  cultivation,  but 


404     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 


the  fruit  gathered  from  trees  in  the  forest  is  preserved  in  tins 
and  sold  commercially  to  a  limited  extent.  The  genus  Platonia 
contains  only  one  or  two  species. 

The  tree  is  described  as  large,  with  oblong,  acute,  leathery 
leaves.  The  flowers  are  solitary,  terminal,  rose-colored,  and 
showy.  J.  Barbosa  Rodrigues  l  says  that  the  fruits  are  the  size 

of  oranges,  bright  yel- 
low in  color,  with  sev- 
eral seeds  surrounded  by 
white  pulp.  The  flavor 
is  acidulous,  sprightly, 
and  very  pleasant. 

Jacques  Huber  of 
Para,  Brazil,  writes: 
"The  bakuri  is  a  hardy 
tree  with  us  and  does 
not  require  careful  cul- 
tivation. Cut  down,  it 
springs  up  easily  from 
suckers  which  arise  from 
the  roots.  In  Marajo 
it  is  considered  a  weed, 
difficult  to  exterminate, 
especially  in  pastures 


near  houses." 
The  bakuri  is  some- 


Fio.  51.  The  bakupari  (Rheedia  brasilien- 
sis),  a  Brazilian  relative  of  the  mangosteen. 
The  skin  is  yellow,  and  the  white  pulp  subacid  ,  •  r  ,  •  „ 

and  spicy  in  flavor,    (x  J)  times  listed  botamcally 

as  Aristoclesia  esculenta, 

Stuntz.  In  Brazil  it  has  been  offered  by  nurserymen  under 
the  ^common  name  bakupari,  which  properly  belongs  to  a 
species  of  Rheedia. 

The  tree  is  probably  strictly  tropical  in  its  requirements. 
It  should  repay  horticultural  attention. 

1  Hortus  Fluminensis. 


THE  MANGOSTEEN  AND  ITS  RELATIVES         405 

THE  BAKUPARi  (Fig.  51) 
(Rheedia  brasiliensis,  Planch.  &  Triana) 

This  handsome  tree  is  indigenous  to  the  state  of  Rio  de  Janeiro 
in  southeastern  Brazil.  It  closely  resembles  its  near  relative 
the  bakuri  (Platonia  insignis).  The  fruit  is  smaller  in  size  than 
that  of  the  latter  species,  and,  while  not  considered  so  delicious, 
is  highly  prized  by  the  natives,  especially  when  prepared  in  the 
form  of  a  doce  or  jam. 

The  tree,  which  is  said  to  flower  in  December  and  ripen  its 
fruit  in  January  and  February,  is  little  known  in  cultivation. 
The  fruit  is  ovate  in  form,  sharp  at  the  apex,  and  about  1-J-  inches 
long.  It  is  orange-yellow  in  color  and  has  a  tough,  leathery  skin 
surrounding  translucent  snow-white  pulp  in  which  two  oblong 
seeds  are  embedded.  The  flavor  is  subacid,  suggesting  that  of 
the  mangosteen. 

Several  other  species  of  Rheedia  produce  edible  fruits,  but 
none  of  them  is  well  known  in  cultivation.  R.  edulis,  Planch. 
&  Triana,  is  occasionally  cultivated  in  Brazil  under  the  name 
of  limao  do  matto  (wild  lemon) ;  it  is  a  small,  handsome  tree 
with  oblong  glossy-green  leaves  and  elliptic  yellow  fruits  2 
inches  long.  The  white  pulp  is  highly  acid.  R.  macrophylla, 
Mart.,  is  said  by  Jacques  Huber  to  be  cultivated  at  Para  under 
the  name  of  bacury-pary.  Its  fruits  are  said  to  resemble  those 
of  Platonia  insignis,  but  are  somewhat  smaller  and  more  acid. 


CHAPTER  XV 
THE  BREADFRUIT  AND  ITS  RELATIVES 

NOTWITHSTANDING  their  very  different  appearance,  the 
breadfruits  are  of  the  same  family  (Moracese)  as  the  mul- 
berries, fig,  and  osage  orange.  The  breadfruits,  however, 
are  tropical,  whereas  the  fig  is  grown  as  a  warm-temperate 
and  subtropical  fruit.  The  genus  Artocarpus,  comprising 
the  breadfruit  and  its  relatives,  includes  some  30  species. 

THE  BREADFRUIT  (Figs.  52,  53) 
(Artocarpus  communis,  Forst.) 

Among  the  horticultural  products  brought  to  the  atten- 
tion of  Europeans  by  the  early  voyagers  to  the  East,  few  were 
considered  of  such  interest  and  value  as  the  breadfruit.  The 
importance  of  its  introduction  into  the  British  colonies  in  the 
West  Indies  was  felt  to  be  so  great  that  His  Majesty's  govern- 
ment toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  fitted  out  an 
expedition  for  the  sole  purpose  of  transporting  the  plants  from 
Tahiti,  in  Polynesia,  to  Jamaica  and  other  islands  in  the  Ameri- 
can tropics.  On  the  failure  of  this  expedition,  due  to  the 
mutiny  of  the  crew,  a  second  and  successful  one  was  under- 
taken. 

Contrary  to  expectations,  the  breadfruit  did  not  prove  of 
great  value  to  the  West  Indian  colonies.  The  banana  is 
more  productive  and  gives  more  prompt  returns,  and  the 
negroes  preferred  to  continue  eating  a  fruit  to  which  they 

406 


THE  BREADFRUIT  AND  ITS  RELATIVES 


407 


were  accustomed  rather  than  trouble  to  cultivate  the  taste 
for  a  new  one. 

In  Polynesia,  however,  the  breadfruit  still  retains  the  im- 
portant position  which  it  occupied  at  the  time  the  region 
was  first  visited  by  Europeans.  There  it  is  a  staple  food  and 


FIG.  52.  The  breadfruit  (Artocarpus  communis)  is  one  of  the  staple  foodstuffs 
of  the  Polynesians.  It  is  cultivated  on  a  limited  scale  in  tropical  America,  where 
it  was  introduced  toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  (X  about  \) 

really  entitled,  by  reason  of  its  starchy  character  and  the  role 
which  it  plays  in  the  native  dietary,  to  the  name  which  has 
been  bestowed  on  it  by  the  English. 

The  tree,  when  well  grown,  is  one  of  the  handsomest  to  be 
seen  within  the  tropics.  It  reaches  a  height  of  40  to  60  feet,  and 
has  large,  ovate,  leathery  leaves  which  are  entire  at  the  base 


408     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 


and  three-  to  nine-lobed  toward  the  upper  end.  Male  and 
female  flowers  are  produced  in  separate  inflorescences  on  the 
same  tree.  The  staminate  or  male  flowers  grow  in  dense, 
yellow,  club-shaped  catkins  ;  the  female,  which  are  very  numer- 
ous, are  grouped  together  and  form  a  large  prickly  head  upon 
a  spongy  receptacle.  The  ripe  fruit,  which  is  composed  of  the 
matured  ovaries  of  these  female  flowers,  is  round  or  oval  in 
form,  commonly  4  to  8  inches  in  diameter,  green  when  immature 
but  becoming  brownish  and  at  length 
yellow.  The  pulp  is  fibrous,  pure  white 
in  the  immature  fruit  and  yellowish  in 
the  fully  ripe  one.  The  fruits  are  pro- 
duced on  the  small  branches  of  the  tree 
upon  short,  thick  stalks.  Clusters  of 
two  or  three  are  common. 

There  are  two  classes  of  breadfruits, 
one  seedless  and  the  other  carrying 
seeds.  The  former  is  propagated  vege- 
tatively,  and  is  presumably  the  product 
of  cultivation  ;  the  latter  is  often  found 
in  a  wild  state,  and  is  not  used  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  seedless  kind.  The 
seeds  resemble  chestnuts  in  size  and 


FIG.  53.  The  bread- 
fruit, showing  its  internal 
structure.  This  is  the 
seedless  variety,  generally 
cultivated  in  Polynesia ; 
the  other  form  has  seeds 
as  large  as  chestnuts,  and 
is  not  highly  valued.  (X 
about  i) 


appearance. 

The  breadfruit  is  believed  to  be  a 
native  of  the  Malayan  Archipelago,  where  it  has  been  culti- 
vated since  antiquity.  From  its  native  region  it  was  carried 
to  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  in  prehistoric  times.  Henry  E. 
Baum,1  who  has  written  a  lengthy  history  of  this  fruit,  com- 
ments: "The  open-boat  journeys  of  the  Polynesians  in  their 
peopling  of  the  Pacific  islands  are  marvelous  from  the  point 
of  view  of  seamanship  alone.  .  .  .  Probably  a  hundred  species 
of  plants  were  introduced  into  Hawaii  by  the  Polynesians,  and 
1  Plant  World,  VI,  1903. 


THE  BREADFRUIT  AND  ITS   RELATIVES         409 

as  a  majority  of  their  principal  food-producing  plants  were 
propagated  by  cuttings  alone,  the  difficulty  in  successfully 
carrying  them  across  a  wide  expanse  of  ocean  in  open  boats  is 
obvious." 

Spanish  voyagers  who  visited  the  Solomon  Islands  in  the 
sixteenth  century  encountered  the  breadfruit,  and  it  is  believed 
that  it  must  also  have  been  seen  by  the  early  Dutch  and  Portu- 
guese sailors.  In  1686  Captain  William  Dampier  observed 
the  plant  at  Guam  and  gave  to  the  world  an  accurate  descrip- 
tion of  the  fruit  and  its  uses.  The  famous  Captain  Cook,  who 
explored  the  Pacific  from  1768  until  he  met  his  death  in  the 
Sandwich  Islands  in  1779,  is  said  to  have  suggested  to  the 
British  the  desirability  of  introducing  the  tree  into  the  West 
Indies.  The  outcome  was  that  notorious  voyage  under  WTilliam 
Bligh,  in  the  Bounty,  which  forms  certainly  the  most  dramatic 
incident  in  the  history  of  plant  introduction.  The  expedi- 
tion sailed  from  England  in  1787,  and  reached  Tahiti,  after  a 
cruise  of  ten  months,  in  1788.  A  thousand  breadfruit  plants 
were  obtained  and  placed  on  board  ship  in  pots  and  tubs  which 
had  been  provided  for  the  purpose.  Before  the  ship  was  out 
of  the  South  Seas  the  crew,  who  had  become  enchanted  with 
Tahitian  life,  mutinied  and  took  charge  of  the  ship,  putting 
their  commander  and  the  eighteen  men  who  remained  loyal 
to  him  in  a  launch  and  setting  them  adrift.  The  mutinous 
crew  sailed  back  to  Tahiti,  whence  some  of  the  members, 
accompanied  by  a  number  of  Tahitians,  migrated  to  Pitcairn's 
Island  and  established  there  an  Utopian  colony.  After  a  trying 
voyage  Bligh  and  his  companions  reached  Tofoa,  an  island  in 
the  Tonga  group,  but  they  met  with  a  hostile  reception  from 
the  natives  and  were  forced  to  continue  their  desperate  pilgrim- 
age. Fearing,  because  of  their  defenseless  condition,  to  land 
on  the  Oceanic  islands,  they  steered  for  the  distant  East  Indies, 
which  they  were  successful  in  reaching.  "  It  appeared  scarcely 
credible  to  ourselves,"  remarks  Captain  Bligh  in  his  account 


410     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

of  the  voyage,  "that,  in  an  open  boat  so  poorly  provided, 
we  should  have  been  able  to  reach  the  coast  of  Timor  in  forty- 
one  days  after  leaving  Tofoa,  having  in  that  time  run,  by  our 
log,  a  distance  of  3618  miles;  and  that,  notwithstanding  our 
extreme  distress,  no  one  should  have  perished  in  the  voyage.'' 

Undaunted  by  the  failure  of  the  first  attempt,  a  second  was 
fitted  out,  again  under  the  command  of  Bligh,  who  was  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  Captain  in  the  Royal  Navy.  This 
expedition,  which  sailed  in  1792,  secured  1200  breadfruit 
plants,  as  well  as  other  valuable  trees,  and  safely  brought 
them  to  the  West  Indies. 

The  seeded  breadfruit,  which  is  much  less  valuable  than  the 
seedless  variety,  was  introduced  into  the  West  Indies  by  the 
French  ten  years  previous  to  Bligh's  successful  voyage. 

At  the  present  day  the  breadfruit  is  cosmopolitan  in  its 
distribution.  Regarding  its  occurrence  in  Hawaii,  Vaughan 
MacCaughey  l  says : 

"At  the  time  of  the  coming  of  the  first  European  explorers  the 
breadfruit  was  plentiful  around  the  native  settlements  and  villages  on 
all  the  islands:  more  plentiful  than  it  has  been  at  any  subsequent 
period.  It  thrives  in  the  humid  regions  of  Kona  and  Hilo,  on  the 
island  of  Hawaii,  and  to-day  there  are  many  abandoned  trees  in  these 
districts,  marking  the  sites  of  once-populous  Hawaiian  villages.  The 
extensive  breadfruit  groves  of  Lahaina,  on  Maui,  were  long  famous  for 
the  excellence  of  their  fruit.  In  humid  valleys  on  Molokai,  Oahu,  and 
Kauai,  the  tree  was  also  abundant,  rearing  its  splendid  dome  of  glossy 
foliage  high  above  the  surrounding  vegetation. 

"It  is  distinctly  a  tree  of  the  valleys  and  lowlands  in  Hawaii,  and 
with  the  decadence  of  the  Hawaiian  population,  and  the  utilization  of 
fertile  lowlands  for  sugar  plantations,  the  majority  of  these  fine  old 
trees  were  sacrificed  to  make  way  for  the  white  man's  agriculture." 

In  some  of  the  Polynesian  Islands,  the  tree  is  of  such  ancient 
cultivation,  and  plays  such  an  important  part  in  the  life  of  the 
people,  that  the  natives  are  unable  to  conceive  of  a  land  where 
the  breadfruit  is  not  found. 

1  Torreya,  March,  1917. 


THE  BREADFRUIT   AND   ITS   RELATIVES         411 

Westward  from  Polynesia  and  its  native  region  (the  Malay 
Archipelago),  the  breadfruit  is  grown  in  Ceylon  and  occasionally 
in  India.  In  the  American  tropics  it  is  nowhere  an  important 
product,  but  it  is  cultivated  on  a  limited  scale  in  the  West 
Indies,  the  lowlands  of  Mexico  and  Central  America,  and  on 
the  South  American  mainland  as  far  south  as  the  state  of 
Sao  Paulo  in  Brazil. 

There  are  probably  no  places  on  the  mainland  of  the  United 
States  where  it  can  be  cultivated  successfully.  All  parts  of 
California  unquestionably  are  too  cold  for  it.  Trees  have  been 
planted  in  extreme  southern  Florida,  but  so  far  as  is  known 
none  has  ever  reached  bearing  stage,  although  there  are  fruit- 
ing specimens  of  the  allied  jackfruit  in  that  state. 

The  seedless  variety  is  invariably  called  breadfruit  in  English ; 
the  seeded  variety  sometimes  breadnut.  The  Spanish  name 
for  the  seedless  form  is  drbol  del  pan,  sometimes  masa  pan; 
the  French  arbre  a  pain;  the  Portuguese  arwre  do  poo  or  fruta 
pao;  the  Italian  albero  del  pane;  and  the  German  brotbaum. 
W.  E.  Safford 1  gives  the  following  vernacular  names  :  Seedless 
variety,  —  lemae,  lemai,  lemay,  rima  (Guam) ;  n'raa,  colo,  kolo 
(Philippines);  'ulu  (Samoa,  Hawaii);  uto  (Fiji).  Seeded 
variety,  —  dugdug,  dogdog  (Guam) ;  tipolo,  antipolo  (Philip- 
pines) ;  'ulu-ma'a  (Samoa) ;  vto-sore  (Fiji) ;  bulia  (Solomon 
Islands).  Botanically  the  breadfruit  is  Artocarpus  communis, 
Forst.  The  name  Artocarpus  incisa,  L.,  is  a  synonym. 

The  methods  of  preparing  breadfruit  for  eating  are  numerous. 
Safford  writes:  "It  is  eaten  before  it  becomes  ripe,  while  the 
pulp  is  still  white  and  mealy,  of  a  consistency  intermediate 
between  new  bread  and  sweet  potatoes.  In  Guam  it  was 
formerly  cooked  after  the  manner  of  most  Pacific  island 
aborigines,  by  means  of  heated  stones  in  a  hole  in  the  earth, 
layers  of  stones,  breadfruit,  and  green  leaves  alternating.  It 
is  still  sometimes  cooked  in  this  way  on  ranches;  but  the 
1  Useful  Plants  of  Guam. 


412     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

usual  way  of  cooking  it  is  to  boil  it  or  to  bake  it  in  ovens ;  or 
it  is  cut  in  slices  and  fried  like  potatoes.  The  last  method  is 
the  one  usually  preferred  by  foreigners.  The  fruit  boiled  or 
baked  is  rather  tasteless  by  itself,  but  with  salt  and  butter  or 
with  gravy  it  is  a  palatable  as  well  as  a  nutritious  article  of 
diet." 

Alice  R.  Thompson  of  Hawaii,  who  has  published  analyses 
of  two  varieties,  says  on  the  point  of  nutritive  value:  "The 
breadfruit  is  included  in  the  table  with  bananas  because  it 
contains  such  high  amounts  of  carbohydrates.  In  comparing 
it  with  the  banana  the  hydrolyzable  carbohydrates  are  seen 
to  be  much  greater  in  amount.  The  breadfruit  contains 
considerable  amounts  of  starch  even  when  ripe.  The  ash, 
fiber,  and  protein  are  high.  The  Samoan  breadfruit  was  an- 
alyzed at  a  riper  stage  than  the  Hawaiian  specimen,  which 
may  account  for  the  larger  proportion  of  starch  to  sugars  in 
the  former."  Miss  Thompson's 1  two  analyses  are  as  follows  : 


TABLE  VII.    COMPOSITION  OF  THE  BREADFRUIT 


HYDRO- 

LYZABLE 

VARIETY 

TOTAL 
SOLIDS 

ASH 

ACIDS 

PROTEIN 

TOTAL 
SUGARS 

FAT 

FIBER 

CARBO- 
HYDRATES 

OTHER  THAN 

SUCROSE 

Hawaiian 

41.82 

.95 

.01 

1.57 

9.49 

.19 

1.20 

27.89 

Samoan  . 

26.89 

1.15 

.07 

1.57 

14.60 

.51 

.97 

9.21 

The  above  statements  of  uses  and  content  apply  solely  to  the 
seedless  variety.  In  the  seeded  form  the  flesh  or  pulp  is  of 
little  value,  but  the  seeds,  which  are  eaten  roasted  or  boiled,  are 
highly  relished .  They  have  something  of  th e  flavor  of  chestnuts . 

The  breadfruit  tree  is  put  to  many  uses  in  the  Pacific  islands. 

1  Report  of  the  Hawaii  Exp.  Stat.,  1914. 


THE   BREADFRUIT  AND   ITS  RELATIVES         413 

Cloth  and  a  kind  of  glue  or  calking  material  are  obtained  from 
it,  while  the  leaves  are  excellent  fodder  for  live-stock. 

In  climatic  requirements  the  tree  is  strictly  tropical.  Mac- 
Caughey  sums  up  the  necessary  factors  as :  "A  warm,  humid 
climate  throughout  the  year;  copious  precipitation;  moist, 
fertile  soil ;  and  thorough  drainage.  The  absence  of  any  one 
of  these  conditions  is  a  serious  detriment  to  the  normal  growth 
of  the  plant,  or  may  wholly  prevent  its  fruiting.  It  is  scarcely 
tolerant  of  shade,  and  in  Hawaii  large  trees  are  almost  invari- 
ably found  growing  in  the  open."  It  may  be  observed  that 
in  those  parts  of  Central  America  where  the  breadfruit  is  culti- 
vated'it  is  found  only  in  the  lowlands,  disappearing  at  eleva- 
tions of  about  2,000  feet.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  it  is  only 
successful  in  regions  of  uniformly  warm  climate. 

Propagation  of  the  seedless  breadfruit  is  effected  in  the 
Pacific  islands  by  means  of  sprouts  from  the  roots.  Mac- 
Caughey  writes :  "  When  growing  in  the  soft  moist  soil  which 
it  prefers,  the  breadfruit  roots  shallowly  and  widely.  Often 
a  network  of  exserted  roots  is  visible  above  the  ground.  This 
habit  is  of  the  greatest  value  in  propagation.  The  wounding 
or  bruising  of  the  root  at  any  given  point  stimulates  the  pro- 
duction of  an  offshoot,  and  young  plants  for  transplanting 
are  produced  solely  in  this  way.  This  mode  of  propagation  is 
naturally  very  slow  and  laborious,  as  the  young  shoots  grow 
slowly,  and  are  very  sensitive  to  injury." 

P.  J.  Wester  has  developed  in  the  Philippines  a  method 
which  is  more  expeditious  and  satisfactory.  Root-cuttings 
are  used.  The  method  is  described  by  him  as  follows : 

"  A  plant  bed  or  frame  should  be  filled  with  medium  coarse  river 
sand  to  a  depth  of  7  or  8  inches,  —  beach  sand  will  do  provided  the 
salt  has  been  thoroughly  washed  out.  If  sand  is  not  procurable, 
sandy  loam  may  be  used. 

"  Larger  cuttings  may  be  made,  but  for  the  sake  of  convenience  in 
handling  and  in  order  not  to  impose  too  severe  a  strain  upon  the  tree 
that  supplies  the  material,  it  is  inadvisable  to  dig  up  roots  for  cuttings 


414     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

that  are  more  than  2|  inches  in  diameter.  Roots  less  than  \  inch  in 
diameter  should  be  discarded.  Root  cuttings  10  inches  long  have 
been  very  successful,  but  it  is  probable  that  a  length  of  8  inches  would 
prove  sufficient,  and,  if  so,  this  would  allow  the  propagation  of  a  larger 
number  of  cuttings  from  a  given  amount  of  roots  than  if  longer  cuttings 
were  made. 

"  Saw  off  the  roots  into  the  proper  lengths  and  smooth  the  cuts 
with  a  sharp  knife.  Then  make  a  trench  and  place  the  cuttings  diag- 
onally in  the  sand,  leaving  about  1|  to  1\  inches  of  the  thickest  end 
of  each  cutting  projecting  above  the  surface,  pack  the  sand  well, 
water,  and  subsequently  treat  like  hardwood  cuttings.  When  the 
cuttings  are  well  rooted  and  have  made  a  growth  of  eight  to  ten  inches, 
transplant  to  the  nursery.  Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  not 
bruising,  drying,  or  otherwise  injuring  the  material  from  the  digging 
of  the  roots  to  the  insertion  of  the  cuttings  in  the  sand. 

"  The  work  should  be  done  during  the  rainy  season." 

Seeds  of  the  seeded  breadfruit  do  not  retain  their  vitality 
more  than  a  few  weeks,  and  should  be  planted  promptly  after 
they  are  removed  from  the  fruit. 

The  varieties  of  the  seedless  breadfruit  are  numerous  but 
imperfectly  known.  As  many  as  twenty-five  are  said  to  occur 
in  the  Pacific  islands,  although  MacCaughey  states  that  only 
three  are  known  in  Hawaii.  It  is  a  curious  circumstance  that 
a  tree  as  important  as  the  breadfruit  should  have  received 
so  little  scientific  study;  but  exceedingly  little  is  known  re- 
garding the  cultural  methods  best  suited  to  it  and  the  relative 
merits  of  the  different  varieties  propagated  vegetatively.  Con- 
cerning such  matters  as  its  place  in  Polynesian  folklore,  its 
history,  and  the  uses  of  the  fruit,  however,  there  is  an  abun- 
dance of  information  in  the  accounts  of  early  voyages  as  well 
as  in  the  writings  of  modern  authors. 

THE  JACKFRUIT  (Plate  XXIII) 
(Artocarpus  integrifolia,  Forst.) 

"There  is  again  another  wonderful  tree/'  wrote  the  pioneer 
traveler  John  de  Marignolli  in  1350,  "called  Chake-Baruke, 


THE   BREADFRUIT   AND   ITS   RELATIVES         415 

as  big  as  an  oak.  Its  fruit  is  produced  from  the  trunk,  and 
not  from  the  branches,  and  is  something  marvelous  to  see, 
being  as  big  as  a  great  lamb,  or  a  child  of  three  years  old. 
It  has  a  hard  rind  like  that  of  our  pine-cones,  so  that  you 
have  to  cut  it  open  with  a  hatchet ;  inside  it  has  a  pulp  of  sur- 
passing flavor,  with  the  sweetness  of  honey,  and  of  the  best 
Italian  melon ;  and  this  also  contains  some  500  chestnuts  of 
like  flavor,  which  are  capital  eating  when  roasted/' 

Like  other  early  travelers,  Marignolli  was  inclined  to  exagger- 
ate the  merits  of  the  new  fruits  with  which  he  made  acquaint- 
ance. The  jackfruit  is  not  generally  considered  first-class  by 
Europeans.  When  preserved  or  dried  it  is  better,  but  in  tropical 
America  the  fruit  is  commonly  not  eaten  except  by  the  poorer 
classes.  In  the  Orient,  where  it  has  been  cultivated  since 
ancient  times,  it  seems  to  be  held  in  greater  esteem;  H.  F. 
Macmillan  says  that  it  "  forms  a  very  important  article  of  food 
with  the  natives  of  the  Eastern  tropics."  Both  Theophrastus 
and  Pliny,  early  writers  who  mentioned  the  jackfruit,  give 
the  same  impression ;  Pliny  describes  it  as  the  fruit  "  whereof 
the  Indian  Sages  and  Philosophers  do  ordinarily  live." 

The  jackfruit  is  less  exacting  in  its  cultural  requirements 
than  its  congener  the  breadfruit,  and  since  it  resists  cool  weather 
much  better  it  is  adapted  to  cultivation  over  a  wider  area. 

The  tree  is  large,  stately,  and  handsome;  under  favorable 
conditions  it  may  reach  a  height  of  60  to  70  feet.  The  leaves 
are  oblong,  oval,  or  elliptic  in  form,  4  to  6  inches  in  length, 
leathery,  glossy,  and  deep  green  in  color.  The  flowers  resemble 
in  general  those  of  the  breadfruit,  except  that  the  pistillate  or 
female  blossoms  are  commonly  produced  directly  on  the  bark 
of  the  trunk  and  larger  limbs.  The  fruit  is  one  of  the  largest 
in  the  world;  some  writers  affirm  that  specimens  have  been 
known  to  weigh  80  pounds,  although  half  this  is  a  safer  estimate. 
They  vary  from  oval  to  oblong,  and  are  sometimes  2  feet  in 
length.  The  surface  is  studded  with  short  hard  points,  and  is 


416     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

pale  green  in  the  immature  fruit,  becoming  greenish  yellow 
and  then  brownish  as  ripening  progresses.  The  fruit  is  divided 
inside  into  many  small  cavities  each  containing  a  seed  sur- 
rounded by  soft  brownish  pulp  of  pungent  odor  and  aromatic 
flavor  somewhat  suggesting  the  banana.  Thomas  Firminger 
speaks  rather  discouragingly  of  this  fruit.  He  says:  "By 
those  who  can  manage  to  eat  it,  it  is  considered  most  delicious, 
possessing  the  rich  spicy  flavor  and  scent  of  the  melon,  but  to 
such  a  powerful  degree  as  to  be  quite  unbearable  to  persons  of 
weak  stomach,  or  to  those  unaccustomed  to  it." 

The  tree  grows  wild  in  the  mountains  of  India  and  is 
ordinarily  considered  indigenous  to  that  country.  Alphonse 
DeCandolle  believed  that  its  cultivation  probably  did  not 
antedate  the  Christian  era.  At  the  present  day  it  is  common 
in  many  parts  of  India,  particularly  in  lower  Bengal,  and 
Macmillan  observes  that  it  has  become  semi-naturalized  in 
Ceylon.  In  the  Malayan  region  it  is  a  common  fruit-tree. 
The  worthy  Father  Tavares  states  that  it  was  introduced  into 
Brazil  by  the  Portuguese  about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  It  is  now  abundant  in  many  parts  of  that  country, 
particularly  about  Bahia.  William  Harris  1  gives  the  following 
account  of  its  introduction  into  Jamaica : 

"It  was  amongst  the  plants  found  on  board  the  French  ship 
bound  from  the  Isle  of  Bourbon  to  Santo  Domingo,  which 
was  captured  by  Captain  Marshall  of  H.  M.  S.  Flora,  one  of 
Lord  Rodney's  squadron,  in  June,  1782,  and  was  sent  to  Mr. 
Hinton  East's  garden  in  Gordon  Town.  It  was  again  intro- 
duced in  the  early  part  of  1793  when  Captain  Bligh  of  H.  M.  S. 
Providence  brought  it  with  other  plants  from  the  island  of 
Timor  in  the  Malay  Archipelago.  The  tree  is  common  all 
over  the  island,  and  is  naturalized  in  the  Cockpit  country." 

In  Hawaii  it  is  not  abundant.  It  has  never  been  a  success 
in  California,  the  climate  having  proved  too  cold  for  it.  In 
1  Bull.  Botanical  Dept.,  3,  1910. 


THE   BREADFRUIT   AND  ITS   RELATIVES         417 

southern  Florida,  however,  there  are  several  fruiting  trees,  but 
on  the  shallow  soils  of  that  region  they  do  not  grow  to  large 
size,  and  the  fruits  which  have  been  produced  were  not  of  good 
quality.  The  species  is  probably  too  strictly  tropical  in  its 
requirements  to  be  entirely  successful  in  any  part  of  this  country. 

Concerning  the  origin  of  the  name  jackfruit,  which  is  known 
to  be  an  English  adaptation  of  the  Portuguese  jaca,  Yule  and 
Burnell  say :  "  Rheede  rightly  gives  tsjaka  (chakka)  as  the 
Malayalam  name,  and  from  this  no  doubt  the  Portuguese  took 
jaca  and  handed  it  on  to  us."  Kanthal,  kathal,  panasa,  and 
kantaka  are  some  of  the  vernacular  names  used  in  India.  The 
French  call  it  jacque.  The  orthography  of  the  common  English 
name  might  better  be  jakfruit,  and  indeed  this  spelling  is 
employed  by  some  writers,  but  the  commoner  form  jackfruit 
will  probably  be  hard  to  displace.  Artocarjnis  Integra,  L.,  is  a 
botanical  synonym. 

The  fruit  is  eaten  fresh,  or  it  may  be  preserved  in  sirup,  or 
dried  like  the  fig.  Thomas  Firminger  writes :  "  If  the  edible 
pulp  of  the  fruit  be  taken  out  and  boiled  in  some  fresh  milk, 
and  then  be  strained  off,  the  milk  will,  on  becoming  cold,  form 
a  thick  jelly-like  substance  of  the  consistency  of  blanc-mange, 
of  a  fine  orange  color,  and  of  melon-like  flavor.  Treated  in 
this  way  the  fruit  affords  a  very  agreeable  dish  for  the  table." 
Father  Tavares  has  this  warning:  "It  must  be  eaten  when 
full  ripe,  and  not  at  meal  times ;  a  cup  of  cool  water  should  be 
taken  immediately  afterwards,  never  wine  or  other  fermented 
drink,  since  these,  when  combined  with  the  jaca,  are  poisonous." 
lie  adds  that  the  seeds,  boiled  or  roasted,  are  very  pleasant 
and  that  they  are  used,  pulverized,  in  making  biscuits.  The 
ripe  fruits  are  often  fed  to  cattle  in  Brazil.  Alice  R.  Thompson 
of  Hawaii  has  found  the  edible  portion  or  pulp  to  contain: 
Total  solids  23.20  per  cent,  ash  0.93,  acids  0.27,  protein  1.44, 
total  sugars  15.15,  fat  0.45,  and  fiber  1.3.  The  seed  was  found 
to  contain :  Total  solids  50.82  per  cent,  ash  3.49,  acids  0.16, 

2E 


418     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

protein  5.44,  total  sugars  1.87,  fat  0.24,  fiber  1.80,  and  hydroly- 
zable  carbohydrates  other  than  sucrose  23.53.  Thus  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  pulp  is  rather  high  in  protein  and  fiber  and  low 
in  acids.  The  seeds  have  a  high  starch-content  and  very  little 
sugar,  while  the  protein-content  is  about  5  per  cent. 

The  climatic  requirements  of  the  jackfruit  consist  in  abun- 
dant precipitation  and  freedom  from  severe  frosts.  Probably 
it  can  be  grown  by  the  aid  of  irrigation  in  regions  where  there  is 
little  rainfall.  Mature  trees  have  passed  through  temperatures 
of  about  27°  above  zero  in  southern  Florida,  but  they  were 
frozen  to  the  large  limbs.  Though  temperatures  below  freezing 
kill  young  trees  and  injure  old  ones,  the  jackfruit  is  not,  like 
its  congener  the  breadfruit,  injured  by  cool  weather  several 
degrees  above  freezing.  It  prefers  a  rich,  deep,  and  moist  soil, 
but  can  be  grown  successfully  on  shallow  and  light  soils  such 
as  some  of  those  of  southern  Florida.  In  Brazil  it  grows  well 
on  clay  and  on  sandy  loam.  Very  little  attention  is  given  to 
cultural  methods  in  the  regions  where  the  jackfruit  is  commonly 
grown.  Like  the  breadfruit,  it  succeeds  without  much  care  from 
man,  the  sole  necessity  being  abundant  moisture. 

Propagation  is  by  seeds,  which  should  be  planted  soon  after 
their  removal  from  the  fruit.  The  method  of  propagation  by 
means  of  root-cuttings  or  suckers,  which  is  practiced  with  the 
seedless  breadfruit,  is  said  not  to  be  successful  with  this  species. 

According  to  Paul  Hubert,  young  trees  come  into  bearing 
when  five  years  of  age.  It  is  doubtful,  however,  whether  they 
can  be  depended  on  to  fruit  so  early.  Thomas  Firminger 
writes :  "The  jackfruit  is  not  borne,  like  most  other  fruits  are, 
from  the  ends  of  branches,  but  upon  stout  footstalks  pro- 
jecting from  the  main  trunk  and  thickest  branches  of  the  tree. 
In  no  other  way,  indeed,  could  its  ponderous  weight  be  sus- 
tained. The  situation  of  the  fruit,  moreover,  is  said  to  vary 
with  the  age  of  the  tree;  being  first  borne  on  the  branches, 
then  on  the  trunk,  and  in  old  trees  on  the  roots.  Those  borne 


THE  BREADFRUIT  AND  ITS  RELATIVES         419 

on  the  roots,  which  discover  themselves  by  the  cracking  of  the 
earth  above  them,  are  held  in  the  highest  estimation."  When 
grown  in  a  cool  climate  the  fruits  are  of  inferior  quality.  The 
ripening  season  extends  over  several  months. 

Paul  Hubert  states  that  Batocera  rubra  L.  attacks  the  tree 
in  some  regions.  This  insect',  which  is  a  cerambycid  beetle, 
causes  much  damage  to  fig  trees  in  India  by  boring  in  their 
trunks,  and  probably  works  on  the  jackfruit  in  the  same  manner. 
The  larva  of  a  moth,  Perina  nuda  F.,  is  said  by  H.  Maxwell- 
Lefroy  to  feed  on  the  jackfruit  throughout  India. 

"Of  this  tree,"  says  the  excellent  Rheede,  "they  reckon 
more  than  thirty  varieties,  distinguished  by  the  quality  of  their 
fruits,  but  all  may  be  reduced  to  two  kinds ;  the  fruit  of  one 
kind  is  distinguished  by  plump  and  succulent  pulp  of  excellent 
flavor,  being  the  Varaka ;  that  of  the  other,  filled  with  softer 
and  more  flabby  pulp  of  inferior  flavor,  being  the  Tsjakapa." 
This  classification  is  borne  out  by  more  modern  writers. 
Thomas  Firminger  speaks  of  the  hard  and  soft  kinds,  and  the 
same  two  forms  are  known  in  Brazil.  H.  F.  Macmillan  gives 
the  following  resume  of  the  subject : 

"  Jak-fruit  occurs  in  several  varieties,  the  two  most  distinct 
in  Ceylon  being:  (1)  'Waraka/  distinguished  by  a  firm  fruit, 
which  the  natives  recognize  by  the  sound  when  flicked  with 
the  fingers  ;  (2)  '  Vela/  characterized  by  its  softer  rind,  through 
which  the  finger  may  be  thrust  when  approaching  ripeness, 
the  pulp  being  less  sweet  than  that  of  the  former  variety.  Of 
these  there  are  several  subvarieties,  as  '  Kuru-waraka '  (with 
small  and  almost  round  fruit),  and  ' Peni-waraka '  (' honey 
jak '),  which  has  a  sweetish  pulp.  A  variety  called  '  Johore  jak/ 
with  hairy  leaves  and  a  small  oblong  fruit  with  a  most  over- 
powering odor,  is  greatly  esteemed  by  those  who  eat  the  fruit." 

Since  these  "varieties"  are  propagated  by  seed,  they  should 
properly  be  termed  races.  Of  true  horticultural  varieties- 
propagated  vegetatively,  there  are  none. 


420     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

THE  MARANG 
(Artocarpus  odoratissima,  Blanco) 

The  marang  has  been  brought  recently  to  the  attention  of 
horticulturists  by  P.  J.  Wester,  who  considers  it  a  fruit  of  un- 
usual promise.  It  resembles  the  jackfruit  and  the  seeded 
breadfruit  in  appearance,  but  is  superior  in  quality  to 
either  of  these.  The  tree,  which  grows  wild  in  the  southern 
Philippine  Islands  and  the  Sulu  Archipelago,  is  medium-sized, 
with  large,  dark  green  entire  or  three-lobed  leaves  18  to  24 
inches  long.  Wester  describes  the  fruit  as  roundish  oblong  in 
form,  about  6  inches  in  length,  with  the  surface  thickly  studded 
with  soft  greenish  yellow  spines  ^  inch  long.  The  rind  is  thick 
and  fleshy,  the  flesh  white,  sweet,  and  juicy,  aromatic  and  of 
pleasant  flavor;  it  is  separated  into  segments  (about  the  size 
of  a  grape)  which  cling  to  the  core,  and  each  segment  contains 
a  whitish  seed  nearly  \  inch  long.  "  When  the  fruit  is  ripe,  by 
passing  a  knife  around  and  through  the  rind,  with  a  little  care 
the  halves  may  be  separated  from  the  flesh,  leaving  this  like 
a bunch  of  white  grapes."  In  the  Philippines  it  ripens  in  August. 

The  tree  is  strictly  tropical  in  its  requirements  and  probably 
will  not  succeed  in  regions  where  the  temperature  falls  below 
32°  or  35°  above  zero.  It  likes  a  moist  atmosphere  and  abun- 
dant rainfall.  The  marang  has  been  introduced  into  the 
United  States,  but  does  not  promise  well  either  in  Florida  or  in 
California. 


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I 


CHAPTER  XVI 
MISCELLANEOUS  FRUITS 

HAVING  discussed  in  the  different  chapters  the  fruits  that 
are  more  or  less  closely  related  botanically  and  culturally,  we 
may  now  put  the  remaining  kinds  together  in  a  single  final 
fascicle.  Most  of  these  fruits  are  of  very  minor  importance 
horticulturally.  Here  the  reader  will  find  accounts  of  the 
durian,  santol,  langsat,  carambola,  bilimbi,  tamarind,  carissa, 
ramontchi,  umkokolo,  ketembilla,  white  sapote,  tuna,  pitaya, 
tree  tomato,  genipa. 

THE  DURIAN  (Plate  XXIV) 
(Durio  zibethinus,  Murr.) 

Except  for  the  fact  that  a  few  trees  have  been  planted  in  the 
West  Indies  and  elsewhere,  and  that  P.  J.  Wester  has  shown 
that  it  can  readily  be  budded  (thus  paving  the  way  for  its 
improvement),  the  durian  occupies  the  same  position  to-day 
which  it  held  when  first  observed  by  Europeans  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  —  that  of  a  semi-cultivated  fruit  of  great  importance 
to  the  inhabitants  of  the  Malayan  region. 

Its  tardy  dissemination  has  probably  been  due  to  the  perish- 
able nature  of  its  seeds,  making  it  difficult  to  carry  the  species 
from  one  part  of  the  tropics  to  another.  It  mus.t  be  admitted, 
also,  that  the  fruit  is  not  one  which  has  invariably  met  with  a 
favorable  reception  from  Europeans.  Because  of  its  strong 
disagreeable  odor  many  do  not  like  it,  but  others  become 
extremely  fond  of  it. 

421 


422     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

In  its  native  home  the  durian  becomes  a  large  tree.  It  has 
obovate-oblong  leaves  6  to  7  inches  long,  leathery  in  texture, 
shining  on  the  upper  surface  and  scaly  on  the  lower.  The 
flowers,  which  are  produced  in  cymes,  have  a  bell-shaped 
five-lobed  calyx  and  five  oblong  petals.  The  fruit  is  oval  in 
form,  6  to  8  inches  long,  covered  externally  with  short  woody 
protuberances.  It  is  five-valved,  and  within  each  compart- 
ment are  several  seeds  surrounded  by  clear  pale  brown  custard- 
like  pulp  of  strong  gaseous  odor  and  rich  bland  taste.  The 
following  description  by  a  distinguished  durian-eater,  Alfred 
Russel  Wallace,1  gives  an  excellent  idea  of  this  remarkable  fruit : 

"The  banks  of  the  Sarawak  River  are  everywhere  covered  with 
fruit  trees,  which  supply  the  Dyaks  with  a  great  deal  of  their  food. 
The  Mangosteen,  Lansat,  Rambutan,  Jack,  Jambou,  and  Blimbing, 
are  all  abundant;  but  most  abundant  and  most  esteemed  is  the 
Durian,  a  fruit  about  which  very  little  is  known  in  England,  but  which 
both  by  natives  and  Europeans  in  the  Malay  Archipelago  is  reckoned 
superior  to  all  others.  The  old  traveller  Linschott,  writing  in  1599, 
says :  —  '  It  is  of  such  an  excellent  taste  that  it  surpasses  in  flavor  all 
the  other  fruits  of  the  world,  according  to  those  who  have  tasted  it.' 
And  Doctor  Paludanus  adds :  —  '  This  fruit  is  of  a  hot  and  humid 
nature.  To  those  not  used  to  it,  it  seems  at  first  to  smell  like  rotten 
onions,  but  immediately  they  have  tasted  it  they  prefer  it  to  all  other 
food.  The  natives  give  it  honorable  titles,  exalt  it,  and  make  verses 
on  it.'  When  brought  into  a  house  the  smell  is  often  so  offensive  that 
some  persons  can  never  bear  to  taste  it.  This  was  my  own  case  when 
I  first  tried  it  in  Malacca,  but  in  Borneo  I  found  a  ripe  fruit  on  the 
ground,  and,  eating  it  out  of  doors,  I  at  once  became  a  confirmed 
Durian  eater. 

"The  Durian  grows  on  a  large  and  lofty  forest  tree,  somewhat 
resembling  an  elm  in  its  general  character,  but  with  a  more  smooth 
and  scaly  bark.  The  fruit  is  round  or  slightly  oval,  about  the  size  of  a 
large  coconut,  of  a  green  color,  and  covered  all  over  with  short  stout 
spines,  the  bases  of  which  touch  each  othe*r,  and  are  consequently 
somewhat  hexagonal,  while  the  points  are  very  strong  and  sharp. 
It  is  so  completely  armed,  that  if  the  stalk  is  broken  off  it  is  a  difficult 
matter  to  lift  one  from  the  ground.  The  outer  rind  is  so  thick  and 
tough,  that  from  whatever  height  it  may  fall  it  is  never  broken.  From 
the  base  to  the  apex  five  very  faint  lines  may  be  traced,  over  which 

1  The  Malay  Archipelago. 


MISCELLANEOUS   FRUITS  423 

the  spines  arch  a  little;  these  are  the  sutures  of  the  carpels,  and 
show  where  the  fruit  may  be  divided  with  a  heavy  knife  and  a  strong 
hand.  The  five  cells  are  satiny  white  within,  and  are  each  filled 
with  an  oval  mass  of  cream-colored  pulp,  imbedded  in  which  are  two 
or  three  seeds  about  the  size  of  chestnuts.  This  pulp  is  the  eatable 
part,  and  its  consistence  and  flavor  are  indescribable.  A  rich  butter- 
like  custard  highly  flavored  with  almonds  gives  the  best  general  idea 
of  it,  but  intermingled  with  it  come  wafts  of  flavor  that  call  to  mind 
cream-cheese,  onion-sauce,  brown  sherry,  and  other  incongruities. 
Then  there  is  a  rich  glutinous  smoothness  in  the  pulp  which  nothing 
else  possesses,  but  which  adds  to  its  delicacy.  It  is  neither  acid, 
nor  sweet,  nor  juicy,  yet  one  feels  the  want  of  none  of  these  qualities, 
for  it  is  perfect  as  it  is.  In  fact  to  eat  Durians  is  a  new  sensation, 
worth  a  voyage  to  the  East  to  experience. 

"When  the  fruit  is  ripe  it  falls  of  itself,  and  the  only  way  to  eat 
Durians  in  perfection  is  to  get  them  as  they  fall ;  and  the  smell  is  then 
less  overpowering.  When  unripe,  it  makes  a  very  good  vegetable  if 
cooked,  and  it  is  also  eaten  by  the  Dyaks  raw.  In  a  good  season 
large  quantities  are  preserved  salted,  in  jars  and  bamboos,  and  kept 
the  year  round,  when  it  acquires  a  most  disgusting  odor  to  Europeans 
but  the  Dyaks  appreciate  it  highly  as  a  relish  with  their  rice.  There 
are  in  the  forest  two  varieties  of  wild  Durians  with  much  smaller 
fruits,  one  of  them  orange-colored  inside;  and  these  are  probably 
the  origin  of  the  large  and  fine  Durians,  which  are  never  found  wild. 
It  would  not,  perhaps,  be  correct  to  say  that  the  Durian  is  the  best 
of  all  fruits,  because  it  cannot  supply  the  place  of  the  subacid,  juicy 
kinds,  such  as  the  orange,  grape,  mango,  and  mangosteen,  whose 
refreshing  and  cooling  qualities  are  so  wholesome  and  grateful ;  but 
as  producing  a  food  of  the  most  exquisite  flavor  it  is  unsurpassed.  If 
I  had  to  fix  on  two  only,  as  representing  the  perfection  of  the  two 
classes,  I  should  certainly  choose  the  Durian  and  the  Orange  as  the 
king  and  queen  of  fruits. 

"The  Durian  is,  however,  sometimes  dangerous.  When  the  fruit 
begins  to  ripen  it  falls  daily  and  almost  hourly,  and  accidents  not 
infrequently  happen  to  persons  walking  or  working  under  the  trees. 
When  a  Durian  strikes  a  man  in  its  fall,  it  produces  a  dreadful  wound, 
the  strong  spines  tearing  open  the  flesh,  while  the  blow  itself  is  very 
heavy ;  but  from  this  very  circumstance  death  rarely  ensues,  the 
copious  effusion  of  blood  preventing  the  inflammation  which  might 
otherwise  take  place.  A  Dyak  chief  informed  me  that  he  had  been 
struck  down  by  a  Durian  falling  on  his  head,  which  he  thought  would 
certainly  have  caused  his  death,  yet  he  recovered  in  a  very  short  time.'* 

The  area  in  which  the  durian  is  indigenous  has  not  been 
determined  with  certainty.  The  species  is  generally  believed 


424     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

to  be  native  to  Borneo  and  other  islands  of  the  Malay  Archi- 
pelago, but  Sir  Joseph  Hooker  considered  that  its  distribution 
as  an  indigenous  plant  probably  did  not  extend  to  the  Malay 
peninsula.  He  thought  that  Durio  malaccensis,  Planch., 
which  grows  in  Malacca  and  Burma,  might  be  the  wild  form  of 
the  durian. 

The  region  in  which  the  tree  is  commonly  found  extends  from 
the  northern  Federated  Malay  States  through  the  Dutch  East 
Indies  and  up  into  the  Philippines  as  far  as  Mindanao.  A  single 
tree  is  known  to  have  fruited  in  Hawaii,  and  another  in  Dominica, 
British  West  Indies.  The  species  is  seen  occasionally  in  Ceylon 
and  other  tropical  countries,  but  outside  of  the  Malayan  region 
its  cultivation  is  limited  mainly  to  botanic  gardens. 

The  name  durian  (or  dorian)  is  the  only  one  by  which  this 
fruit  is  known  to  Europeans.  Yule  and  Burnell  say  :  "  Malay 
duren,  Molucca  form  durivan,  from  duri,  a  thorn  or  prickle 
(and  an,  the  common  substantival  ending;  Mr.  Skeat  gives 
the  standard  Malay  as  duriyan  or  durian)."  Various  spellings 
of  the  word  are  found  in  the  early  writers. 

An  analysis  made  in  the  Philippines  by  W.  E.  Pratt  shows  the 
fruit  to  contain :  Total  solids  44.5  per  cent,  ash  1.24,  acids  0.1, 
protein  2.3,  invert  sugar  4.8,  sucrose  7.9,  and  starch  11.0.  In 
the  Philippine  Journal  of  Science,  November,  1912,  O.  W. 
Barrett  writes:  "The  chemical  body  which  is  responsible  for 
the  very  pronounced  odor  is  probably  one  of  the  sulfur  com- 
pounds with  some  base  perhaps  related  to  that  in  butyric  acid ; 
it  is  not  an  oil  nor  a  sugar,  not  a  true  starch  nor  an  inulin,  but 
according  to  Dr.  W.  E.  Pratt  it  is  a  substance  new  to  the  organic 
chemist.  The  pulp  contains  a  compound  wrhich,  it  is  believed, 
is  related  to  erythrodextrin,  but  seems  to  exist,  if  such,  in  a  new 
form  in  this  fruit." 

In  its  climatic  requirements  the  durian  is  tropical,  probably 
strictly  so.  The  few  experiments  made  indicate  that  it  will  not 
succeed  anywhere  on  the  mainland  of  the  United  States.  It 


MISCELLANEOUS  FRUITS  425 

is  limited  to  regions  free  from  frost,  and  delights  in  a  deep  rich 
soil  and  abundant  moisture.  There  are  many  places  in  the 
West  Indies  and  elsewhere  in  tropical  America  where  it  should 
be  quite  at  home.  In  the  Malayan  islands,  where  it  is  com- 
monly grown,  the  tree  receives  little  cultural  attention,  hence 
nothing  is  known  regarding  pruning,  irrigation,  or  other  matters 
which  usually  give  the  northern  horticulturists  much  concern. 
Propagation  is  ordinarily  by  seeds,  which  do  not  keep  long 
after  they  are  removed  from  the  fruit.  It  has  been  learned 
that  they  can  be  shipped  successfully  from  the  eastern  to  the 
western  tropics  if  they  are  packed  in  a  mixture  of  charcoal 
and  coconut  fiber,  slightly  moistened. 

The  method  of  budding  practiced  by  Wester,  to  which  refer- 
ence has  been  made,  differs  very  little  from  shield-budding  as 
applied  to  the  avocado  and  mango.  By  means  of  this  method 
of  propagation  it  will  be  possible  to  perpetuate  superior  seed- 
lings, and  the  number  of  years  required  for  the  tree  to  come 
into  bearing  should  be  lessened.  Wester  recommends  that 
the  budwood  be  well  beyond  the  tender  stage,  but  not  so  old 
that  it  is  brittle.  The  petioles  should  be  removed  some  time 
before  the  budwood  is  to  be  used,  and  the  petiole-scars  given 
time  to  heal  over;  if  this  is  not  done,  decay  may  attack  the 
buds.  The  inverted  T-incision  is  preferred. 

No  horticultural  varieties  have  yet  been  established,  but 
several  seedling  races  or  forms  are  known  to  exist.  Barrett 
says :  "  In  passing  we  should  not  forget  that  there  are  durians 
and  durians;  some  are  said  to  be  without  a  strong  odor,  while 
to  our  certain  knowledge  some  of  the  Borneo  varieties  are  not 
at  all  objectionable.  Borneo  has  at  least  six  and  probably 
ten  varieties;  some  of  these  have  only  one  or  two  seeds  and 
are  comparatively  small  fruits,  while  others  are  fully  as  large 
as  our  largest  Jolo  or  Lake  Lanao  (Mindanao)  forms ;  the  pulp 
of  some  is  nearly  white,  while  that  of  others  is  pale  salmon  or 
even  orange  in  color," 


426     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

THE  SANTOL 
(Sandoricum  Koetjape,  Merr.) 

Few  writers  recommend  the  santol  as  a  fruit  worthy  of  exten- 
sive cultivation.  It  is  known  chiefly  in  the  Malayan  region, 
where  it  is  indigenous.  The  tree  is  medium  sized,  attaining 
to  50  feet  in  height.  The  leaves  are  trifoliate  with  elliptic  to 
oblong-ovate,  acuminate  leaflets  4  to  6  inches  in  length.  The 
greenish  flowers  are  borne  in  axillary  panicles  and  are  followed 
by  globose  or  oblate  fruits  about  2  inches  in  diameter,  brownish 
yellow  and  velvety  on  the  surface,  with  a  thick  tough  rind 
inclosing  five  segments  of  whitish  translucent  pulp  which  ad- 
heres to  the  large  seeds. 

"The  santol/'  writes  P.  J.  Wester,  "is  one  of  the  most  widely 
distributed  fruits  in  the  Philippines.  The  tree  is  hardy,  of 
vigorous  and  rapid  growth,  and  succeeds  well  even  where  the 
dry  season  is  prolonged.  The  fruit  is  produced  in  great  abun- 
dance, in  fact  in  such  profusion  that  large  quantities  annually 
rot  on  the  ground  during  the  ripening  season,  which  extends 
principally  from  July  to  October.  It  should  be  stated  that  the 
waste  of  the  fruit  is  due  principally  to  its  poor  quality ;  in  fact, 
from  the  European  point  of  view  most  of  the  santols  are  barely 
edible.  However,  now  and  then  trees  are  found  whose  fruit 
is  of  most  excellent  flavor,  and  when  a  fruit  shall  have  been 
found  that  also  has  the  feature  of  being  seedless  or  semi-seedless, 
like  the  mangosteen,  it  is  believed  the  now  practically  unknown 
santol  will  become  one  of  the  most  popular  of  the  tropical  fruits." 

Sandoricum  indicum,  Cav.,  is  a  botanical  synonym. 

THE  LANGSAT  (Fig.  54) 
(Lansium  domesticum,  Jack) 

While  it  cannot  be  said  to  rival  the  mangosteen,  the  langsat 
is  considered  one  of  the  best  fruits  of  the  Malayan  region. 


MISCELLANEOUS   FRUITS  427 

Like  the  mangosteen  it  differs  from  many  other  tropical  fruits  in 
being  juicy  and  of  aromatic  subacid  flavor,  instead  of  richly 
sweet.  It  is  doubtless  to  this  characteristic  that  it  owes  its 
popularity  among  European  travelers  and  residents  in  the 
East. 

Like  several  other  excellent  Malayan  fruits,  the  langsat 
has  not  yet  become  generally  cultivated  outside  of  the  Asiatic 
tropics.  Its  introduction  into  the  western  hemisphere  has  been 
accomplished,  but  it  is  only  found  as  yet  in  a  few  botanic  gardens 
and  private  collections  of  rare  plants. 

The  tree  is  erect,  symmetrical  in  form,  usually  somewhat 
slender,  and  attains  a  height  of  35  to  40  feet.    Its  pinnate 
leaves  are  composed  of  five  to  seven 
elliptic-oblong    to    obovate    acuminate 
leaflets  4  to  8  inches  in  length.     The 
small  subsessile  flowers  are  borne  on 
racemes  or  spikes  arising  from  the  larger 

,  £•"......  FIG.  54.     The    duku,    a 

branches.  The  fruit  varies  in  form  and  variety  of  the  langsat  (Lan- 
character,  but  is  generally  oval  or  sium  domesticum)  which 

j    i  *     r>  •      V       •     _r  i  grows     in     the      Malayan 

round,  I  to  2  inches  in  diameter,  velvety    Archipelago,    (x  }) 
and  straw-colored,  with  a  thick  leathery 

skin  inclosing  five  segments  of  white,  translucent,  juicy,  aromatic 
flesh,  and  one  to  three  large  seeds.  The  tree  is  cultivated  in 
many  islands  of  the  Malay  Archipelago  and  in  the  Philippines. 
Regarding  its  importance  in  the  latter  region,  P.  J.  Wester 
writes  :  "  The  lanzone  is  extensively  grown  for  the  Manila  mar- 
ket in  Laguna  Province,  east  of  Santa  Cruz,  and  is  also  cultivated 
to  a  considerable  extent  in  Misamis,  Zamboanga,  the  Sulu 
Archipelago,  and  around  Argao  in  Cebu."  As  indicated  by 
Wester's  note  the  common  name  in  the  Philippines  is  lanzone 
(often  spelled  lanzori).  In  the  Malay  Archipelago  the  forms 
lansa  and  lanseh  are  sometimes  seen,  and  also  the  nameayer-ayer. 
While  it  is  most  commonly  eaten  out  of  hand,  the  culinary 
uses  of  the  fruit  are  several.  The  edible  portion  is  said 


428     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

to  contain  1.13  per  cent  of  protein,   1   of  acid,  and  4.9  of 
sugar. 

In  its  climatic  requirements  the  plant  is  distinctly  tropical. 
Wester  says :  "  The  lanzone  is  of  vigorous  growth  and  succeeds 
best  under  somewhat  the  same  climatic  conditions  as  the 
mangosteen.  It  will  not  grow  where  there  is  a  pronounced 
or  prolonged  dry  season,  and  in  the  Philippines  it  is  usually 
grown  in  half-shade  interplanted  with  the  coconut."  Experi- 
ments indicate  that  it  is  not  suitable  for  cultivation  in  Florida 
or  California,  the  climate  of  both  states  probably  being  too 
cold  for  it.  In  Cuba  and  the  Isle  of  Pines  it  has  shown  more 
promise. 

Little  is  known  regarding  cultural  methods,  since  the  lang- 
sat  usually  occurs  in  the  Malayan  region  as  a  dooryard  tree, 
or  along  roadsides,  where  it  receives  no  cultural  attention. 
Propagation  is  commonly  by  seeds,  which  should  be  planted 
as  soon  as  possible  after  they  are  removed  from  the  fruit ;  but 
Wester  has  shown  that  cleft-  and  side-grafting  are  successful, 
and  one  or  the  other  of  these  methods  should  be  used  to  propa- 
gate choice  varieties,  and  to  insure  early  fruiting.  \Yester 
says :  "The  cion  should  be  well  matured  but  not  of  old  growth, 
2J  to  3J  inches  long,  J  to  f  inch  in  diameter,  and  inserted  in 
the  stock  2J  to  4  inches  above  ground ;  when  at  that  height  it 
is  J  to  |  inch  in  diameter ;  cover  all  wounds  with  grafting  wax. 
Shield-budding  has  been  done  but  the  percentage  of  successful 
buds  is  small." 

The  langsat  occurs  in  two  distinct  forms,  one  termed  langsat 
and  the  other  duku  or  doekoe.  The  typical  langsat  is  borne  in 
clusters  of  five  or  six  up  to  twenty  or  thirty,  and  the  individ- 
ual fruits  are  round  or  oval  in  form,  about  an  inch  long,  with  a 
comparatively  thin  skin.  The  duku  is  produced  in  small 
clusters  of  two  to  five  fruits,  and  is  round,  from  1  to  2  inches 
in  diameter,  with  a  thicker,  darker-colored  skin  more  leathery 
than  that  of  the  langsat. 


MISCELLANEOUS   FRUITS 


429 


THE  CARAMBOLA  (Fig.  55) 
(Averrhoa  Carambola,  L.) 

"There  is  another  fruit  called  Carambola,"  wrote  the  Dutch 
traveler  Linschoten  in  1598,  "which  hath  8  corners,  as  bigge 
as  a  smal  aple,  sower  in  eating,  like  unripe  plums,  and  most 
used  to  make  Con- 
serues."  The  Chinese 
and  the  Hindus  eat  the 
carambola  when  green 
as  a  vegetable,  when 
ripe  as  a  dessert.  It  is 
widely  distributed  in 
the  tropics,  but  in 
America  it  is  not  so 
highly  esteemed  as  in 
the  Orient. 

The  tree  is  small, 
handsome,  and  grows 
up  to  30  feet  in  height. 
It  has  compound  leaves 
composed  of  two  to  five 
pau*s  of  ovate  or  ovate- 
lanceolate  leaflets, 
rounded  at  the  base  and 
acute  to  acuminate  at 
the  apex,  H  to  3  inches 
long,  glabrous,  light 
green  above  and  glau- 
cous below.  The  small 

white  or  purplish  flowers  are  borne  in  short  racemes  from  the 
bark  of  the  young  and  old  branches.  The  petals  are  five ;  the 
stamens  ten,  but  five  are  without  anthers.  The  fruit  is  oval  or 
elliptic  in  outline,  translucent  yellow  or  pale  golden  brown  in 


FIG.  55.  A  flowering  and  fruiting  branch  of 
carambola  (Averrhoa  Carambola),  an  Asiatic 
fruit  sometimes  cultivated  in  tropical  America. 


430     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

color,  3  to  5  inches  long,  and  three-,  four-,  or  five-ribbed  longi- 
tudinally, so  that  a  cross-section  is  star-shaped.  "It  contains 
a  clear  watery  pulp,"  writes  W.  E.  Safford,  "astringent  when 
green  and  tasting  like  sorrel  or  green  gooseberries,  but  pleasantly 
acid  when  ripe,  or  even  sweet,  with  an  agreeable  fruity  flavor, 
and  a  strong  perfume  like  that  of  the  quince." 

While  the  native  home  of  this  species  is  not  definitely  known, 
it  is  believed  to  be  indigenous  to  the  Malayan  region,  whence 
it  was  early  brought  to  America.  It  is  now  cultivated  in 
southern  China,  and  from  there  westward  to  India.  Safford 
states  that  it  grows  in  Guam,  but  is  not  common.  It  also 
grows  in  the  Philippines  and  in  Hawaii.  In  America  it  is 
most  abundant  in  Brazil,  where  it  was  doubtless  introduced 
by  the  Portuguese.  It  does  not  grow  in  California,  but  succeeds 
in  southern  Florida.  E.  N.  Reasoner  has  a  handsome  specimen 
in  his  tropical  fruit  shed  at  Oneco,  near  Bradentown,  a  place 
which  would  be  too  cold  for  the  species  were  it  not  given  some 
protection  during  the  winter.  It  is  rare  on  the  lower  east 
coast  of  Florida. 

The  name  carambola  is  said  to  have  come  from  Malabar,  and 
was  early  adopted  by  the  Portuguese.  In  upper  India  the  fruit 
is  called  kamranga  or  kamrakh.  The  presence  of  a  Sanskrit 
name,  karmara,  and  the  accounts  of  early  writers,  indicate 
that  the  plant  was  known  in  India  before  the  time  of  European 
colonization.  The  Chinese  are  said  to  call  the  fruit  yongfo 
or  foreign  peach.  In  the  Philippines  it  is  termed  balimbing 
as  well  as  carambola;  in  Guam  bilimbines. 

The  fruits,  when  fully  ripe,  are  eaten  out  of  hand,  or  they 
may  be  stewed.  When  slightly  unripe  they  are  used  for  jelly 
and  pickles.  Like  the  bilimbi,  the  carambola  contains  potas- 
sium oxalate,  and  for  this  reason  the  unripe  fruit  is  used  in 
dyeing  and  to  remove  iron-rust.  In  southern  China  caram- 
bolas  are  preserved  in  tin  and  exported  to  other  countries.  An 
analysis  made  in  Hawaii  by  Alice  R.  Thompson  shows  the 


MISCELLANEOUS   FRUITS  431 

ripe  fruit  of  the  sweet  variety  to  contain :  Total  solids  8.22  per 
cent,  ash  0.42,  acids  0.78,  protein  0.71,  total  sugars  3.40,  fat 
0.75,  and  fiber  1.23. 

In  its  climatic  requirements  the  tree  may  be  considered 
tropical.  It  withstands  very  little  frost  and  when  young  is 
injured  by  temperatures  above  the  freezing-point.  It  prefers 
a  warm  moist  climate  and  a  deep  rich  soil,  but  it  can  be  grown 
successfully  on  sandy  soils  and  heavy  clays,  and  in  northern 
India  it  thrives  where  the  climate  is  dry.  Cold  is  the  limit- 
ing factor  in  California  and  Florida ;  in  the  latter  state  it  may 
succeed  from  Palm  Beach  southwards,  but  plants  have  often 
failed  to  grow  at  Miami.  When  young  the  carambola  is  deli- 
cate and  requires  careful  attention. 

Safford  states  that  the  tree  is  long-lived  and  a  constant 
bearer,  producing,  in  Guam,  several  crops  a  year.  Father 
Tavares  writes  of  its  behavior  in  Brazil :  "  During  the  entire 
year  it  loads  itself  with  successive  crops  of  flowers  and  fruits, 
except  for  a  short  period  when  it  is  devoid  of  foliage." 

Propagation  is  readily  effected  by  means  of  seeds,  and  P.  J. 
Wester  has  shown  that  budding  is  successful.  He  states  that 
budwood  should  be  beyond  the  tender  stage,  but  not  so  old 
that  it  is  brittle.  It  should  not  be  used  if  the  petioles  have 
fallen.  The  buds  should  be  cut  an  inch  in  length,  and  inserted 
in  inverted  T-incisions,  the  operation  of  budding  being  essen- 
tially the  same  as  with  the  avocado. 

No  horticultural  varieties  of  the  carambola  are  yet  estab- 
lished. Sweet  and  sour  seedling  forms  are  sometimes  recognized. 

THE  BILIMBI 
(Averrhoa  Bilimbi,  L.) 

Like  its  congener  the  carambola,  this  tree  is  probably  a 
native  of  the  Malayan  region,  but  it  is  known  only  as  a  culti- 
vated species.  The  fruit  is  too  highly  acid  to  be  eaten  out  of 


432     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

hand ;  it  may  be  pickled  in  the  same  manner  as  the  cucumber, 
which  it  resembles  in  appearance;  it  may  be  preserved  in 
sirup ;  or  it  may  be  used  as  a  relish  with  meat  or  fish. 

The  tree,  which  grows  to  about  30  feet  in  height,  may  be 
distinguished  readily  from  the  carambola  by  its  larger  leaves, 
which  have  five  to  seventeen  pairs  of  leaflets  in  place  of  two 
to  five.  The  crimson  flowers  have  ten  stamens,  all  perfect. 
The  fruit,  known  in  different  regions  as  bilambu,  balimbing, 
blimbing,  blimbee,  and  camias,  is  cylindrical  or  obscurely  five- 
angled,  2  to  4  inches  long,  greenish  yellow  and  translucent 
when  ripe,  with  soft  juicy  flesh  containing  a  few  small  flattened 
seeds. 

The  requirements  of  the  tree  are  much  the  same  as  those  of 
the  carambola.  It  is  usually  propagated  by  seeds.  P.  J. 
Wester  reported  that  attempts  to  bud  it  were  not  successful. 
No  horticultural  varieties  are  grown. 

THE  TAMARIND  (Fig.  56) 
(Tamarindus  indica,  L.) 

In  addition  to  the  usefulness  of  its  fruit,  the  tamarind  has 
the  advantage  of  being  one  of  the  best  ornamental  trees  of  the 
tropics.  It  is  particularly  valued  in  semi-arid  regions,  where 
it  grows  luxuriantly  if  supplied  with  water  at  the  root.  From 
India  to  Brazil,  its  huge  dome-shaped  head  of  graceful  foliage 
enlightens  many  a  dreary  scene. 

The  fruit  became  known  in  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
Marco  Polo  mentioned  it  in  1298,  but  it  was  not  until  Garcia 
d'Orta  correctly  described  it  in  1563  that  its  true  source  was 
known;  it  was  thought  at  first  to  be  produced  by  an  Indian 
palm.  The  New  England  sea-captains  who  traded  with  the 
West  Indies  in  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries  fre- 
quently brought  the  preserved  fruit  to  Boston  from  Jamaica 
and  other  islands,  but  in  recent  years  it  has  become  scarcely 


MISCELLANEOUS   FRUITS 


433 


known  in  the  United  States.  In  Arabia  and  India,  however, 
it  is  a  product  of  considerable  importance. 

When  grown  on  deep  rich  soils  the  tree  may  attain  to  80  feet 
in  height,  with  a  trunk  25  feet  in  circumference.  The  small 
pale  green  leaves  are 
abruptly  pinnate,  with 
ten  to  twenty  pairs  of 
opposite,  oblong,  ob- 
tuse leaflets,  soft  and 
about  J  inch  long.  The 
pale  yellow  flowers, 
which  are  borne  in 
small  lax  racemes,  are 
about  1  inch  broad. 
The  petals  are  five,  but 
the  lower  two  are  re- 
duced to  bristles.  The 
fruit  is  a  pod,  cinnamon- 
brown  in  color,  3  to  8 
inches  long,  flattened, 
and  \  to  1  inch  in 
breadth.  Within  its 
brittle  covering  are 
several  obovate  com- 
pressed seeds  sur- 
rounded by  brown  pulp 
of  acid  taste. 

The  tamarind  is  be- 
lieved to  be  indigenous 

to  tropical  Africa  and  (according  to  some  authors)  southern 
Asia.  It  has  long  been  cultivated  in  India  and  it  was  early 
introduced  into  tropical  America.  It  succeeds  in  southern 
Florida  and  has  been  grown  in  that  state  as  far  north  as 
Manatee,  where  a  large  tree  was  killed  by  the  freeze  of  1884. 

2F 


FIG.  56.  The  tamarind  (Tamarindus  in- 
dica),  a  leguminous  fruit-tree  whose  brown 
pods  contain  an  acid  pulp  used  in  cooking,  and 
to  prepare  refreshing  drinks.  (X  £) 


434     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

It  is  not  sufficiently  hardy  to  be  grown  in  any  part  of  Cali- 
fornia. 

Yule  and  Burnell  say:  "The  origin  of  the  name  is  curious. 
It  is  Arabic,  tamar-u'l-Hind,  'date  of  India/  or  perhaps  rather 
in  Persian  form,  tamar-i-Hindi.  It  is  possible  that  the  origi- 
nal name  may  have  been  thamar,  ' fruit'  of  India,  rather  than 
tamar,  'date."'  In  French  it  is  tamarin,  in  Spanish  and  Portu- 
guese tamarindo. 

The  fruit  is  widely  utilized  in  the  Orient  as  an  ingredient  of 
chutnies  and  curries  and  for  pickling  fish.  In  medicine,  it  is 
valued  by  the  Hindus  as  a  refrigerant,  digestive,  carminative, 
laxative,  and  antiscorbutic.  Owing  to  its  possession  of  the 
last-named  quality,  it  is  sometimes  used  by  seamen  in  place  of 
lime-juice.  With  the  addition  of  sugar  and  water  it  yields  a 
cooling  drink  or  refresco,  especially  well  known  in  Latin  America. 
In  some  countries  tamarinds  are  an  important  article  of  export. 
In  Jamaica  the  fruit  is  prepared  for  shipment  by  stripping  it 
of  its  outer  shell,  and  then  packing  it  in  casks,  with  alternate 
layers  of  coarse  sugar.  When  the  cask  is  nearly  full,  boiling 
sirup  is  poured  over  all,  after  which  the  cask  is  headed  up. 
In  the  Orient  the  pulp  containing  the  seed  is  pressed  into  large 
cakes,  which  are  packed  for  shipment  in  sacks  made  from  palm 
leaves.  This  product  is  a  familiar  sight  in  the  bazaars,  where  it  is 
retailed  in  large  quantities ;  it  is  greatly  esteemed  as  an  article 
of  diet  by  the  East  Indians  and  the  Arabs.  Large  quantities 
are  shipped  from  India  to  Arabia. 

The  pulp  contains  sugar  together  with  acetic,  tartaric,  and 
citric  acids,  the  acids  being  combined,  for  the  most  part,  with 
potash.  In  East  Indian  tamarinds  citric  acid  is  said  to  be 
present  in  about  4  per  cent  and  tartaric  about  9  per  cent.  The 
following  analysis  has  been  made  in  Hawaii  by  Alice  R.  Thomp- 
son :  Total  solids  69.51  per  cent,  ash  1.82,  acids  11.32,  protein 
3.43,  total  sugars  21.32,  fat  0.85,  and  fiber  5.61.  Commenting 
on  this  analysis,  Miss  Thompson  says :  "  The  tamarind  is  of 


MISCELLANEOUS  FRUITS  435 

interest  because  of  its  high  acid  and  sugar  content.  It  is  sup- 
posed to  contain  more  acid  and  sugar  than  any  other  fruit. 
The  analysis  reported  by  Pratt  and  Del  Rosario  shows  the 
green  tamarind  to  contain  little  sugar,  but  the  sugar  increases 
very  greatly  on  ripening." 

The  tree  delights  in  a  deep  alluvial  soil  and  abundant  rain- 
fall. Lacking  the  latter,  it  will  make  good  growth  if  liberally 
irrigated.  The  largest  specimens  are  found  in  tropical  regions 
where  the  soil  is  rich  and  deep.  On  the  shallow  soils  of  south- 
eastern Florida  the  species  does  not  attain  to  great  size.  When 
small  it  is  very  susceptible  to  frost,  but  when  mature  it  will 
probably  withstand  temperatures  of  28°  or  30°  above  zero 
without  serious  injury.  It  is  usually  given  little  cultural  atten- 
tion, and  is  not  grown  as  an  orchard  tree. 

Propagation  is  commonly  by  means  of  seeds.  These  can  be 
transported  without  difficulty,  since  they  retain  their  viability 
for  many  months  if  kept  dry.  They  are  best  sprouted  by 
planting  them  \  inch  deep  in  light  sandy  loam.  The  young 
plants  are  delicate  and  must  be  handled  carefully  to  pre- 
vent damping-off.  P.  J.  Wester  has  found  that  the  species 
can  be  shield-budded  in  much  the  same  manner  as  the  avocado 
and  mango.  He  says :  "  Use  petioled,  well-matured,  brownish 
or  grayish  budwood ;  cut  the  buds  one  inch  long ;  age  of  stock 
at  point  of  insertion  of  bud  unimportant." 

Seedling  trees  are  slow  to  come  into  bearing.  A  mature  tree 
is  said  to  produce,  in  India,  about  350  pounds  of  fruit  a  year. 

Little  is  known  of  the  insect  pests  which  attack  the  tamarind. 
H.  Maxwell-Lefroy  mentions  two,  Caryoboms  gonagra  F.,  and 
Charaxes  fabius  Fabr.,  the  latter  a  large  black,  yellow-spotted 
butterfly  whose  larva  feeds  on  the  leaves.  Both  these  insects 
occur  in  India. 

Thomas  Firminger  speaks  of  three  varieties  of  tamarind  which 
are  grown  in  India,  but  does  not  know  whether  they  can  be 
depended  on  to  come  true  from  seed.  M.  T.  Masters,  in  the 


436     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

"Treasury  of  Botany,"  states  that  the  East  Indian  variety 
has  long  pods,  with  six  to  twelve  seeds,  while  the  West  Indian 
variety  has  shorter  pods,  containing  one  to  four  seeds.  Seed- 
lings undoubtedly  show  considerable  variation  in  the  size  and 
quality  of  their  fruit,  which  accounts  for  the  different  "varie- 
ties" which  have  been  noted  by  many  writers.  Since  none  of 
these  has  yet  been  propagated  vegetatively,  they  are  of  little 
horticultural  importance. 

THE  CARISSA  (Fig.  57) 
(Carissa  grandiflora,  A.  DC) 

For  its  ornamental  value  as  well  as  its  edible  fruits  the  carissa 
deserves  to  be  cultivated  throughout  the  tropics.  Within  the 
last  few  years  it  has  become  fairly  common  in  southern  Florida, 
and  it  has  been  found  to  succeed  in  southern  California. 

The  plant  is  a  large,  much-branched  and  spreading  shrub, 
reaching  15  or  18  feet  in  height.  It  is  armed  with  stout  branched 
thorns,  and  the  dense  foliage  is  deep  glossy  green  in  color. 
The  leaves  are  ovate-acute,  mucronate,  thick  and  leathery,  and 
1  to  2  inches  long.  The  flowers,  which  are  borne  in  small  termi- 
nal cymes,  are  star-shaped,  fragrant,  and  about  2  inches  broad. 
The  plant  blooms  most  profusely  in  early  spring,  but  produces 
a  few  flowers  throughout  the  year.  The  fruits,  most  of  which 
ripen  in  summer,  are  ovoid  or  elliptic  in  form,  1  to  2  inches 
long,  with  a  thin  skin  inclosing  the  firm  granular  reddish  pulp, 
toward  the  center  of  which  are  several  papery  almost  circular 
seeds.  David  Fairchild,  who  studied  this  plant  in  Natal  (its 
native  home),  writes  of  it:  "On  the  markets  of  Durban  the 
long,  brilliant  red  fruit  of  the  amatungula  is  commonly  sold ; 
in  fact,  during  January  and  February  it  is  one  of  the  commonest 
fruits  to  be  seen  in  the  stalls.  Though  variable  in  size  and 
shape,  it  has  generally  an  elongated  form,  with  a  distinct  point, 
and  the  diameter  of  a  good-sized  Damson  plum.  The  thin 


MISCELLANEOUS   FRUITS 


437 


red  skin  covers  a  pink  flesh  with  a  milky  juice,  which  in  flavor 
is  sweet  but  lacks  character,  although  much  praised  by  European 
residents  for  use  in  making  fruit  salads." 

The  name  under  which  this  fruit  is  known  in  Natal  is  ama- 
tungula.    In  the  United  States  it  is  called  Natal-plum  as  well 
as    carissa.     The    bo- 
tanical name  Arduina 
grandiflora,    E.   Mey., 
is  a  synonym  of  Carissa 
grandiflora. 

In  Florida,  the  car- 
issa is  not  generally 
relished  when  eaten  out 
of  hand.  When  stewed 
it  yields  a  sauce  which 
greatly  resembles  that 
made  from  cranberries. 
It  is  also  used  for  jelly 
and  preserves.  Ac- 
cording to  an  analysis 
made  in  Hawaii  by 
Alice  R.  Thompson,  its 
chief  chemical  constit- 
uents are :  Total  solids 
21.55  per  cent,  ash 
0.43,  acids  1.19,  protein 
0.56,  total  sugars  12.00, 
fat  1.03,  and  fiber  0.91. 


FIG.  57.  The  carissa  (Carissa  grandiflora)  is 
a  handsome  shrub  from  South  Africa,  with  fra- 
grant white  flowers  and  scarlet  fruits  whose  fla- 
vor suggests  raspberries.  (X  \) 

The  plant  is  not  ex- 
acting in  its  climatic  requirements.  It  will  grow  in  warm, 
moist  tropical  regions,  and  in  the  dry  subtropics  wherever 
the  temperature  rarely  falls  below  26°  or  28°  above  zero.  In 
California  it  is  sometimes  injured  by  frost,  but  in  southern 
Florida  this  is  rarely  the  case.  It  succeeds  on  soils  of  varying 


438     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

types,  red  clay,  sandy  loam,  and  light  sand.  It  is  somewhat 
drought-resistant. 

The  carissa  is  particularly  valued  as  a  hedge  plant.  It 
withstands  shearing  admirably  and  its  growth  is  compact  and 
low.  "To  make  an  amatungula  hedge,"  writes  Fairchild,  "is 
a  very  simple  matter.  The  seeds  are  sown  in  a  seed-bed,  and 
when  the  young  plants  are  six  inches  high  they  are  trans- 
planted to  the  place  chosen  for  the  hedge  and  set  a  foot  apart, 
alternately  in  parallel  rows,  distant  from  one  another  a  foot 
or  more.  As  the  plants  grow  they  are  trimmed  into  the  desired 
hedge  form,  and  the  oftener  they  are  trimmed  the  thicker  they 
interweave  their  tough,  thorny  branches,  making  an  impene- 
trable barrier  for  stock  of  all  kinds.  When  in  flower  the  white 
jasmine-like  blossoms  show  off  strikingly  against  the  dark  back- 
ground of  foliage;  and  the  red  fruit  which  follows  is  quite  as 
pretty." 

Cuttings,  when  planted  directly  after  removal  from  the 
parent  bush,  do  not  form  roots  readily  unless  grown  over 
bottom  heat;  but  a  method  has  been  devised  by  Edward 
Simmonds  at  Miami,  Florida,  whereby  nearly  every  one  will 
grow.  This  consists  in  notching  young  branchlets  while  still 
attached  to  the  plant,  making  a  cut  halfway  through  the  stem 
3  or  4  inches  from  the  tip.  The  branchlet  is  then  bent  down- 
ward and  allowed  to  hang  limply  until  the  end  of  the  second 
month,  when  a  callus  will  have  formed  on  the  cut  portion,  and 
the  cutting  may  be  removed  and  placed  in  sand  under  a  lath 
shade,  requiring  another  month  to  strike  roots. 

The  carissa  is  also  propagated  by  layering,  and  it  is  not 
difficult  to  bud,  using  the  common  method  of  shield-budding, 
essentially  the  same  as  practiced  with  the  avocado.  Late 
spring  is  the  best  time  to  do  the  work. 

It  has  been  noted  in  Florida  and  more  particularly  in  Cali- 
fornia that  many  carissa  plants  are  unproductive.  This  matter 
has  never  been  fully  investigated,  but  the  preliminary  studies 


PLATE  XXIII.    The  jackfruit  CArfocarpws  integrifolia) ,  the  largest 
tropical  fruit. 


MISCELLANEOUS   FRUITS  439 

of  Allen  M.  Groves  at  Miami,  Florida,  suggest  that  the 
difficulty  may  be  due  to  lack  of  the  necessary  insects  to 
effect  cross-pollination.  It  has  been  observed,  however,  that 
occasional  plants  uniformly  bear  heavily,  and  the  vegeta- 
tive propagation  of  such  eliminates  all  danger  of  unpro- 
ductiveness. 

There  are  as  yet  no  named  varieties  in  the  trade. 

Another  species  of  carissa,  and  one  which  is  sometimes  con- 
fused with  C.  grandiflora,  is  C.  Arduina,  Lam.  (C.  bispinosa, 
Desf.,  Arduina  bispinosa,  L.).  This  can  be  distinguished  from 
C.  grandiflora  by  the  smaller  size  of  the  flowers,  which  are  only 
\  inch  broad  in  place  of  nearly  2  inches,  with  the  corolla-seg- 
ments much  shorter  than  the  tube ;  and  by  the  oblong-obtuse 
fruit,  which  is  only  \  inch  in  length  and  contains  one  or  two 
lanceolate  seeds,  instead  of  fifteen  or  twenty  circular  ones. 
The  species  is  not  commonly  cultivated  in  the  United  States, 
but  is  said  to  be  used  as  an  ornamental  plant  in  Cape  Town, 
South  Africa. 

The  karanda  (Carissa  Carandas,  K.  Sch.),  a  species  common 
in  India,  has  been  introduced  into  the  United  States,  but  is 
not  often  planted  either  in  California  or  Florida.  It  is  dis- 
tinguished from  C.  grandiflora  and  C.  Arduina  by  the  corolla- 
lobes  being  twisted  to  the  right  instead  of  to  the  left  in  the  bud ; 
by  the  oblong  or  elliptic-oblong  leaves  with  rounded  or  obtuse 
tips ;  and  by  the  spines  being  simple  in  place  of  bifurcate.  Its 
fruits  are  less  than  an  inch  long,  and  contain  three  or  four 
seeds.  They  are  used  in  India  for  pickles  and  preserves. 

THE  RAMONTCHI  (Fig.  58) 
(Flacourtia  Ramontchi,  L'Herit.) 

While  it  must  be  listed  among  the  minor  fruits,  the  ramon- 
tchi  (more  commonly  known  in  the  West  Indies  as  Governor's- 
plum)  is  not  devoid  of  interest  and  merit.  It  is  an  excellent 


440     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

hedge  plant,  and  its  plum-like  fruits,  which  are  produced  in 
great  abundance,  make  good  jam  and  preserves. 

If  allowed  to  develop  to  maximum  size,  the  plant  may  be- 
come a  large  shrub  or  small  tree  about  25  feet  high.  It  is  armed 
with  long  slender  thorns.  The  leaves  are  broadly  ovate  in 
outline,  2  to  3  inches  long,  acuminate,  and  commonly  serrate. 
The  staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  are  normally  produced  on 
separate  plants,  as  in  the  papaya ;  it  is,  therefore,  necessary  to 


FIG.  58.  The  ramontchi  (Flacourtia  Ramontchi) ,  often  called  governor's-plum, 
comes  from  Madagascar.  Its  maroon-colored  fruits,  of  subacid  flavor,  are 
valued  principally  for  making  preserves.  (X  f) 

plant  trees  of  both  sexes  in  order  to  have  fruit.  The  flowers 
are  small  and  inconspicuous,  the  fruits  round,  about  an  inch 
in  diameter,  and  deep  maroon  colored  when  fully  ripe,  having 
a  thin  skin  surrounding  soft  juicy  pulp  and  several  small  thin 
seeds.  The  flavor  is  sweet  and  agreeable  in  some  varieties, 
acid  and  somewhat  strong  in  others. 

The  ramontchi  is  considered  a  native  of  southern  Asia 
and  Madagascar.  It  is  now  widely  scattered  throughout  the 


MISCELLANEOUS   FRUITS  441 

tropics,  but  is  not  extensively  cultivated  in  any  region.  It  can 
be  grown  in  southern  Florida  as  far  north  as  Fort  Pierce.  In 
California  it  has  never  been  very  successful.  With  protec- 
tion during  the  first  winters  it  may  be  possible  to  grow  it  in 
the  mildest  sections  of  the  latter  state.  It  withstands  light  frosts 
after  it  has  attained  a  few  years'  growth,  and  is  not  exacting  in 
its  cultural  requirements.  It  grows  on  soils  of  various  types, 
and  in  moist  climates  as  well  as  in  those  which  are  rather  dry. 
Propagation  is  usually  effected  by  means  of  seeds.  When 
multiplied  in  this  manner,  however,  many  more  male  plants 
are  produced  than  are  required  for  the  pollination  of  the 
females,  and  it  is  not  possible  to  perpetuate  choice  varieties. 
Vegetative  propagation,  most  likely  by  means  of  budding,  will 
have  to  be  applied  to  this  species  before  its  cultivation  can 
be  made  altogether  satisfactory. 

THE  UMKOKOLO  (Fig.  59) 
(Doxy alls  caffra,  Warb.) 

While  its  scented  fruit  is  not  of  great  value  for  eating  out  of 
hand,  the  umkokolo,  often  called  in  English  kei-apple,  is  a 
useful  and  interesting  plant.  It  is  unexcelled  for  hedges  in 
regions  where  the  temperature  does  not  commonly  fall  below 
20°  above  zero. 

The  native  home  of  the  species  is  on  the  Kei  River  in  South 
Africa.  It  is  a  tall  vigorously-growing  shrub,  with  rich  green 
foliage  and  long,  stiff,  sharp  thorns.  The  leaves  are  oblong- 
obovate,  about  2  inches  in  length,  often  in  small  clusters  at  the 
bases  of  the  thorns.  Staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  are  pro- 
duced on  separate  plants,  and  both  are  without  petals.  The 
fruit  is  oblate  or  nearly  round,  bright  golden  yellow,  and  about 
1  inch  in  diameter.  The  thin  skin  incloses  a  yellow,  melting, 
juicy  pulp  and  five  to  fifteen  flattened  pointed  seeds.  The 
flavor  is  aromatic,  highly  acid  unless  the  fruit  is  fully  ripe. 


442     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 


Because  of  this,  the  fruit  is  most  commonly  used  to  make  jam 
and  preserves. 

Outside  of  its  native  region  the  umkokolo  has  been  planted 
to  a  limited  extent  along  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  in 
France,  Algeria,  and  Italy ;  in  northwestern  Australia ;  and  in 

Florida  and  California. 
In  Florida  it  is  said  to 
have  succumbed  to  the 
cold  during  the  severe 
winter  of  1894-1895, 
and  in  California  it  has 
been  killed  by  tem- 
peratures of  16°  above 
zero.  The  usual  win- 
ter temperatures  in  the 
southern  parts  of  both 
states,  however,  are  too 
high  to  injure  it,  and 
the  species  can  be 
grown  safely  as  far 
north  as  the  Lake  re- 
gion in  central  Florida 
and  favored  sections  of 
the  San  Joaquin  Valley 
in  California. 

Botanically  the  um- 
kokolo is  a  Dovyalis 
(latterly  written  Dory- 
alis),  and  it  is  some- 
times listed  as  Aberia  caffra,  Harv.  &  Sond.  Umkokolo  is 
one  of  the  vernacular  names  of  its  native  region  in  South 
Africa.  The  name  kei-apple  is  often  spelled  incorrectly  kai- 
apple. 
The  plant  is  not  exacting  in  its  cultural  requirements,  and  is 


FIG.  59.  The  umkokolo  or  kei-apple  (Dovy- 
alis caffra)  is  a  large  thorny  shrub  from  South 
Africa,  excellent  for  hedges.  (X  \) 


MISCELLANEOUS  FRUITS  443 

decidedly  drought-resistant.  It  is  most  successful  in  a  sub- 
tropical climate,  and  on  a  soil  rich  in  humus. 

It  is  considered  one  of  the  best  hedge  plants  in  South  Africa, 
since  its  long  sharp  thorns  make  it  impenetrable.  To  form  a 
hedge  the  bushes  should  be  set  3  to  5  feet  apart,  and  should  be 
trimmed  on  both  sides  once  a  year.  For  the  production  of 
fruit,  they  should  not  be  set  closer  than  12  to  15  feet,  and  both 
staminate  and  pistillate  plants  must  be  present.  One  of  the 
former  (male)  is  considered  to  be  sufficient  for  twenty  to  thirty 
of  the  latter  (female).  If  sufficient  seedling  plants  are  grown 
so  that  there  are  sure  to  be  some  of  both  sexes,  satisfactory 
results  will  be  obtained;  otherwise,  it  is  best  to  propagate 
staminate  and  pistillate  plants  by  layering  or  some  other 
vegetative  means,  and  to  plant  no  more  staminates  than  will 
be  required  to  furnish  pollen. 

In  the  Mediterranean  region  and  in  the  United  States,  the 
plants  flower  in  April  and  May  and  ripen  their  fruit  from 
August  to  October.  Seeds  may  be  sown  in  pans  or  flats  of 
light  sandy  loam.  Plants  propagated  in  this  manner  will 
begin  to  bear  when  four  or  five  years  old.  Propagation  by 
layering  is  practiced  in  Queensland,  and  the  species  will  prob- 
ably lend  itself  to  shield-budding,  since  P.  J.  Wester  has  shown 
that  another  member  of  the  same  genus  can  be  propagated 
readily  in  this  way.  The  ripe  fruit  is  sometimes  attacked  by 
the  Mediterranean  fruit-fly  (Ceratitis  capitata  Wied.). 

THE  KETEMBILLA 
(Dovyalis  hebecarpa,  Warb.) 

The  ketembilla  is  a  better  fruit  than  its  congener  the  um- 
kokolo,  but  the  plant  is  somewhat  more  limited  in  its  distri- 
bution. From  its  native  home  in  Ceylon  it  has  been  brought 
to  the  Western  Hemisphere,  where  it  may  now  be  found  in  a 
few  gardens  in  Florida,  Cuba,  and  California;  elsewhere  it  is 


444     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

little  known.  Since  it  is  more  tropical  in  its  requirements  than 
the  umkokolo,  it  is  not  suitable  for  cultivation  in  the  Medi- 
terranean basin,  except  perhaps  in  the  most  favored  situations. 

In  growth  and  habit  the  plant  is  less  robust  than  its  congener, 
although  it  reaches  about  the  same  ultimate  height,  15  to  20 
feet.  The  branches  are  slender,  often  drooping  under  the  weight 
of  their  fruit,  and  the  thorns  are  long  and  sharp,  but  not  so 
formidable  as  those  of  the  umkokolo.  The  leaves  are  lanceolate 
or  oval  in  outline,  acute,  entire  or  subserrate,  and  2  to  4  inches 
long.  The  fruit  is  of  the  same  size  and  form  as  that  of  the 
umkokolo,  but  maroon-purple  in  color  and  more  velvety  on 
the  surface.  The  purplish  pulp  is  sweet  and  luscious,  with  a 
flavor  resembling  that  of  the  English  gooseberry,  a  fruit  which 
the  ketembilla  suggests  so  strongly  in  appearance  and  character 
as  to  give  rise  to  the  common  name  Ceylon-gooseberry.  Aberia 
Gardnerii,  Clos.,  is  a  botanical  synonym. 

The  plant  does  not  withstand  drought  as  well  as  the  umkokolo, 
and  is  injured  by  temperatures  considerably  above  20°.  While 
it  succeeds  in  southern  Florida,  the  climate  of  most  parts  of 
southern  California  has  usually  proved  too  cold  for  it.  It  likes 
plenty  of  moisture,  both  in  the  atmosphere  and  in  the  soil, 
and  under  proper  conditions  bears  enormous  crops  of  its  attrac- 
tive fruits. 

The  distribution  of  the  sexes  is  the  same  in  this  species  as  in 
the  umkokolo,  and  it  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  insure  the 
proximity  of  staminate  and  pistillate  plants  if  fruit  is  desired. 
It  has  been  reported  that  isolated  plants  of  both  species  are 
sometimes  fruitful,  which  suggests  that  they  may  in  occasional 
instances  produce  perfect  flowers  and  not  require  cross-polli- 
nation. If  plants  of  such  character  are  found,  they  should  be 
propagated  by  budding  or  grafting,  since  they  would  be  of  con- 
siderable value.  P.  J.  Wester  reports  that  shield-budding  is 
successful.  He  says:  "Use  petioled,  preferably  spineless, 
not  too  old  budwood  with  tomentum  still  present ;  cut  buds  an 


MISCELLANEOUS  FRUITS 


445 


inch  to  an  inch  and  a  quarter  long;  age  of  stock  at  point  of 
insertion  of  buds  unimportant."  Propagation  by  seeds  is 
easily  effected,  as  with  the  umkokolo. 

THE  WHITE  SAPOTE  (Fig.  60) 
(Casimiroa  edulis,  La  Llave) 

In  the  highlands  of 
Mexico  and  Central 
America,  where  it  is 
believed  to  be  indige- 
nous, the  white  sapote 
ranks  among  the  prin- 
cipal cultivated  fruits. 
Outside  of  this  region 
it  is  not  well  known, 
although  it  has,  in  re- 
cent years,  attracted 
attention  in  California 
and  Florida. 

The  Aztecs  of  ancient 
Mexico  used  the  term 
tzapotl  to  designate  soft 
sweet  fruits  such  as  the 
sapodilla  and  its  allies. 
The  lack  of  acidity  and 
the  heavy  sweetness  of 
these  fruits  makes  them 
less  acceptable  to  pal- 
ates accustomed  to  ap- 
ples and  peaches  than 
the  mangosteen  and  certain  other  tropical  fruits.  They  are, 
however,  liked  by  many  northerners,  and  natives  of  tropical 
regions  consider  them  perfect. 


FIG.  60.  The  white  sapote  (Casimiroa  edulis) , 
a  common  fruit  of  the  Mexican  and  Central 
American  highlands,  is  now  grown  in  California 
and  Florida.  (X  i) 


446     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

The  white  sapote  is  a  medium-sized  erect  or  spreading  tree, 
having  palmately  compound  leaves,  small  inconspicuous  flowers, 
and  yellowish  green  fruits  the  size  of  an  orange.  The  fruits 
have  a  thin  membranous  skin,  yellowish  flesh  of  soft  melting 
texture  and  sweet  or  slightly  bitter  flavor,  and  one  to  five  large 
oval  or  elliptic  seeds. 

In  its  native  region  the  white  sapote  is  a  fruit  of  the  high- 
lands. Throughout  Mexico  and  Guatemala  it  is  found  at  ele- 
vations of  2000  to  3000  feet,  and  occasionally  as  high  as  9000 
feet.  It  is  not  grown  in  regions  subject  to  heavy  rainfall. 

It  has  borne  fruit  at  La  Mortola,  in  southern  Italy,  and  is 
occasionally  seen  elsewhere  on  the  Riviera.  It  is  said  also  to 
have  fruited  in  the  island  of  Jersey.  Although  introduced  into 
California  from  Mexico  about  1810,  it  has  not  yet  become 
extensively  cultivated  in  that  state,  and  large  trees  are  rare. 
One  of  the  oldest,  believed  to  have  been  planted  more  than  a 
century  ago,  is  growing  on  De  La  Guerra  Street  in  Santa 
Barbara.  A  number  of  younger  trees,  most  of  them  propa- 
gated by  F.  Franceschi  and  distributed  about  1895,  are  fruiting 
in  various  parts  of  southern  California;  although  some  of 
these  produce  small  bitter  fruits,  others  bear  large  ones  of  deli- 
cious flavor.  In  Florida  the  species  has  not  been  cultivated 
so  long  as  in  California,  but  it  has  proved  quite  successful  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  state. 

The  Aztec  name  for  this  fruit  is  cochiztzapotl,  meaning  "  sleep- 
producing  sapote."  It  is  commonly  known  in  Mexico  at  the 
present  day  as  zapote  bianco  (white  sapote).  In  Guatemala  it 
is  called  matasano. 

The  fruit  is  usually  eaten  fresh,  but  attempts  have  been 
made  in  Central  America  to  prepare  a  sweet  preserve  from  it  on 
a  commercial  scale.  Some  of  the  early  writers  considered  the 
white  sapote  unwholesome,  and  stated  that  it  would  induce 
sleep  if  indulged  in  too  freely,  but  recent  experience  does  not 
indicate  that  there  are  grounds  for  such  beliefs.  Francisco 


MISCELLANEOUS  FRUITS  447 

Hernandez  observed  that  the  seed,  if  eaten  raw,  was  poisonous 
to  animals  and  men.  An  analysis  of  the  fruit  made  at  the 
University  of  California  shows  it  to  contain :  Water  72.64  per 
cent,  ash  0.44,  protein  0.64,  total  sugars  20.64  (invert  sugar 
8.44,  sucrose  12.20),  fat  0.46,  crude  fiber  1.26,  and  starch  and  the 
like  3.92. 

In  its  climatic  requirements  the  tree  is  distinctively  sub- 
tropical. It  is  not  altogether  successful  in  Central  America 
below  3000  feet,  and  it  thrives  at  elevations  of  5000  to  6000  feet. 
It  is  even  found  in  places  which  are  too  high  (i.e.,  too  cold) 
for  the  avocado.  It  prefers  a  well-drained  sandy  loam,  but 
may  be  grown  on  clay  if  the  drainage  is  good,  and  in  Florida 
it  has  done  well  on  shallow  sandy  soils  underlaid  with  soft 
limestone.  It  is  drought-resistant,  but  succeeds  much  better 
in  dry  regions  if  irrigated  like  the  orange. 

While  young,  the  tree  should  be  watered  liberally  to  en- 
courage growth,  and  when  it  is  about  three  feet  high  it  should 
have  the  terminal  bud  removed,  in  order  to  induce  branching ; 
three  or  four  laterals  will  develop,  and  these  in  turn,  after 
they  have  grown  to  a  length  of  one  or  two  feet,  should  have  the 
terminal  buds  removed.  Unless  this  is  done,  the  tree  may 
grow  ten  or  twelve  feet  high  before  it  branches. 

Seeds  should  be  planted  as  soon  as  possible  after  their 
removal  from  the  fruit  in  flats  of  light  porous  soil,  or  singly 
in  three-inch  pots,  covering  them  to  the  depth  of  an  inch.  If 
the  weather  is  warm,  or  artificial  heat  is  provided,  germina- 
tion will  take  place  within  three  or  four  weeks.  The  young 
plants  should  be  grown  in  pots  until  two  or  three  feet  high, 
when  they  may  be  set  out  in  the  open  ground. 

Seedlings  do  not  come  into  bearing  until  seven  or  eight 
years  old,  and  many  produce  fruit  of  inferior  quality.  For 
this  reason  propagation  should  be  effected  by  some  vegetative 
means.  Shield-budding  is  successfully  practiced,  the  method 
being  essentially  the  same  as  with  the  avocado.  Stock  plants 


448     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

should  be  selected  from  young  vigorous  seedlings  whose  stems 
are  about  f  inch  in  diameter  at  the  base.  Budwood  is  taken 
from  the  ends  of  the  branches,  but  of  fairly  well  matured  wood 
which  has  acquired  an  ash-gray  color.  The  buds  are  cut 
about  1-|  inches  long,  leaving  any  wood  that  may  adhere  to 
them,  and  are  inserted  in  T-incisions,  after  which  they  are 
bound  firmly  in  place  with  waxed  tape.  At  the  end  of  two 
to  four  weeks,  depending  on  the  weather,  they  may  be  un- 
wrapped and  then  rewrapped  loosely,  leaving  the  bud  exposed 
so  that  it  may  start  into  growth,  at  the  same  time  lopping  back 
the  stock  to  a  point  three  or  four  inches  above  the  bud.  In 
the  tropics  budding  can  probably  be  done  at  almost  any  season 
of  the  year ;  in  California  spring  and  summer,  when  the  stock 
plants  are  in  most  active  growth,  are  the  best  times. 

Seedling  variation  results  in  some  trees  being  very  produc- 
tive, while  others  bear  little  fruit.  No  budded  trees  have 
yet  come  into  bearing.  The  ripening  season  in  Guatemala  is 
April  and  May;  in  Florida  it  is  May;  in  Mexico  it  extends 
from  May  to  July;  and  in  California  it  begins  in  September 
and  ends  in  November.  Because  of  its  thin  skin  and  delicate 
texture,  the  fruit  does  not  ship  well,  unless  picked  while  still 
hard  and  dispatched  so  as  to  reach  its  destination  before  it 
has  had  time  to  soften. 

Several  horticultural  varieties  have  been  described,  but  none 
has  been  propagated  or  planted  extensively.  Harvey  and 
Maechtlen  are  two  which  have  been  offered  by  the  trade  in 
California;  Parroquia  and  Gillespie  have  been  described,  but 
not  propagated. 

THE  TUNA 
(Opuntia  spp.) 

Several  species  of  Opuntia,  notably  0.  Ficus-indica,  Mill., 
and  0.  megacantha,  S.  D.,  are  extensively  grown  in  tropical  and 


MISCELLANEOUS  FRUITS  449 

subtropical  countries  for  their  fruits,  commonly  known  as  tunas, 
prickly-pears,  or  Indian  figs. 

Among  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  tropical  America,  the 
tuna  (using  this  term  in  a  comprehensive  sense)  has  long  been 
held  in  high  esteem.  It  was  early  introduced  into  southern 
California  by  the  Franciscan  monks,  and  is  now  found  abun- 
dantly in  many  places,  particularly  around  the  old  missions. 
From  America  it  was  carried  to  Spain  by  the  early  voyagers, 
and  from  that  country  it  spread  along  the  Mediterranean 
littoral  and  finally  to  many  other  regions.  It  is  now  cultivated 
and  naturalized  throughout  the  tropics  and  subtropics. 

The  edible-fruited  opuntias  are  erect  or  spreading  plants, 
growing  from  10  to  25  feet  in  height.  They  have  large  flat- 
tened branches  made  up  of  more  or  less  rounded  joints,  which 
in  popular  language  are  called  leaves.  Usually  these  joints 
bear  long  sharp  spines,  although  in  some  species  they  are  almost 
spineless.  The  flowers,  which  are  produced  toward  the  upper 
part  of  the  joints,  are  yellow  or  red  and  rather  showy.  The 
oblong  to  pear-shaped  fruits,  commonly  2  to  3  inches  in  length 
and  green  to  deep  maroon  in  color,  contain  soft,  whitish,  trans- 
lucent pulp  intermixed  with  numerous  large  bony  seeds.  The 
pulp  is  juicy  with  a  pleasant,  although  not  pronounced,  flavor. 
The  principal  objection  to  the  tunas  is  the  great  quantity  of 
hard  seeds  which  they  contain. 

0.  Ficus-indica  has  fewer  spines  and  somewhat  differently 
colored  fruit  from  0.  megacantha;  both  these  species  are 
cultivated  in  the  southwestern  United  States  as  well  as  in 
Mexico,  the  Mediterranean  region,  and  elsewhere.  Several 
other  species  produce  edible  fruits,  but  their  cultivation  is  not 
extensive. 

A  considerable  quantity  of  tunas  is  shipped  annually  to  the 
United  States  from  Sicily,  and  an  important  trade  could  be 
developed  betweeen  the  United  States  and  Mexico. 

Because  of  its  rather  high  nutritive  value,  the  tuna  forms 
2o 


450     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

an  important  article  of  diet  in  many  regions.  It  is  eaten  fresh, 
dried,  or  prepared  in  various  ways.  Griffiths  and  Hare  have  dis- 
cussed this  subject  fully  in  "  The  Tuna  as  Food  for  Man. " 1  The 
ripe  fruit  contains :  Total  solids  19.66  per  cent,  ash  0.40,  acids 
0.18,  protein  0.98,  total  sugars  13.42,  fat  0.23,  and  fiber  2.79. 

J.  W.  Tourney,  writing  in  Bailey's  "  Standard  Cyclopedia  of 
Horticulture,"  says  :  "It  has  been  ascertained  that  some  of  the 
best  varieties  are  capable  of  producing  on  lean,  sandy  or  rocky 
soil,  ill-suited  for  growing  ordinary  crops,  as  much  as  18,000 
pounds  of  fruit  to  the  acre.  When  it  is  considered  that  this 
is  equal  to  2500  pounds  of  sugar,  as  well  as  other  valuable 
food  constituents,  it  may  be  readily  seen  that  the  food  value 
from  the  standpoint  of  nutrition  is  considerable/' 

Little  cultural  attention  is  usually  given  to  the  opuntias  in 
the  regions  where  they  are  grown  for  their  fruit.  To  quote 
Tourney  again  :  "  Plantations  are  usually  made  on  dry '  slopes 
of  hills,  as  the  plants  do  not  thrive  where  there  is  much  mois- 
ture or  on  heavy  clay  soils.  Joints,  cut  or  broken  from  the 
plants,  are  used  instead  of  seeds,  and  are  planted  at  distances 
of  6  to  8  feet  in  furrows  from  6  to  15  feet  apart.  No  tillage  is 
practiced,  as  they  grow  rapidly,  and  in  a  few  years  smother  out 
all  other  growth.  Before  planting,  the  cuttings  are  exposed 
in  half  sunlight  from  seven  to  fifteen  days,  that  they  may 
partially  wither,  in  order  to  facilitate  rooting. 

"  An  important  advantage  in  the  culture  of  these  plants  is  the 
regularity  of  the  yearly  crop.  They  begin  to  bear  in  about  three 
years  after  planting,  and  continue  in  bearing  for  many  years." 

Numerous  varieties  or  forms,  usually  local  in  their  distribu- 
tion, are  distinguished  in  Mexico  and  elsewhere.  In  spite  of  the 
attention  given  in  recent  years  to  the  improvement  of  this 
fruit  by  breeding,  still  further  advances  must  be  made  before 
varieties  are  obtained  which  will  become  popular  as  table- 
fruits  among  North  Americans. 

1  Bui.  116,  Bur.  Plant  Industry. 


MISCELLANEOUS  FRUITS 


451 


THE  PITAYA  (Fig.  61) 
(Hylocereus,  Lemaireocereus,  and  Cereus) 

The  fruits  of  many  cacti  are  known  in  tropical  America  by 
the  name  pitaya,  also  spelled  pitahaya,  pitajaya,  pitajuia,, 
pitalla,  and  pithaya.  These  belong  to  several  genera,  formerly 
classified  under  the  genus  Cereus,  but  the  best  fruits  are  ob- 
tained from  the  genera  Hylocereus  and  Lemaireocereus.  Pitayas 
are  commonly  larger 
than  tunas,  and  by 
some  are  considered 
superior  to  the  latter 
in  quality,  but  their 
use  is  less  extensive. 

The  genus  Hyloce- 
reus has  several  species 
which  produce  good 
fruits.  The  widely 
cultivated  plant  which 
usually  passes  under 
the  name  of  Cereus  tri- 
angularis  is  properly 
Hylocereus  undatus, 
Brit,  and  Rose;  the 
true  C.  triangularis  is 

found  in  Jamaica,  but  rarely  elsewhere.  All  of  these  plants 
are  climbing  in  habit,  and  have  three-angled  stems.  They 
produce  large,  showy,  night-blooming  flowers,  and  oblong  or 
oval  fruits,  bright  pink  to  red  in  color,  sometimes  more  than 
3  inches  in  length,  with  large  leaf-like  scales  on  the  surface. 
The  flesh  is  white  and  juicy  and  is  filled  with  numerous  minute 
seeds.  In  southern  Mexico  the  fruits  are  used  in  various  ways : 
they  may  be  eaten  out  of  hand ;  employed  in  making  cooling 
drinks  and  sherbets ;  and  for  preserves. 


FIG.  61.  The  pitaya  (Hylocereus  undatus)  is 
widely  cultivated  in  the  American  tropics.  Its 
bright  rose-colored  fruits  contain  white  trans- 
lucent pulp  of  pleasant  taste  ;  they  are  produced 
by  a  climbing  cactus  which  bears  handsome 
night-blooming  flowers.  (X  3) 


452     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

Somewhat  distinct  are  the  pitayas  furnished  by  several 
species  of  Lemaireocereus,  notably  L.  griseus,  Brit.  &  Rose,  and 
L.  queretarensw,  Brit.  &  Rose,  and  their  allies.  These  are 
common  wild  plants  in  Mexico  and  elsewhere,  and  L.  griseus 
is  often  cultivated.  The  fruits  are  globose,  about  2J  inches 
in  diameter,  and  covered  with  many  small  clusters  of  spines. 
These  are  brushed  off  the  red  fully  ripe  fruit,  leaving  it  in 
condition  to  be  eaten.  The  flesh  is  dark  red  to  purple,  sweet 
and  delicious  in  flavor. 

The  propagation  and  culture  of  these  plants  resembles  that 
of  the  tunas;  the  Hylocereus  group,  however,  is  much  better 
adapted  to  a  moist  tropical  climate  than  the  latter. 

THE  TREE-TOMATO  (Fig.  62) 
(Cyphomandra  betacea,  Sendt.) 

Several  food-plants  which  were  cultivated  by  the  agricultural 
Indians  of  ancient  Peru  have  become  of  economic  importance  to 
the  modern  world,  one  of  them,  the  potato,  of  immense  value. 
The  tree-tomato,  a  bush  fruit  which  was  planted  in  their 
gardens  high  upon  the  mountain-sides,  is  now  grown  in  the 
hill-regions  of  India  and  Ceylon,  as  well  as  in  several  other 
countries. 

In  its  native  home,  where  it  forms  a  miniature  tree  5  or  6  feet 
high,  O.  F.  Cook  says  the  plant  is  cultivated  at  elevations  of 
6000  to  10,000  feet.  In  California  it  grows  8  or  10  feet  high. 
It  has  large  cordate-ovate,  subacuminate  leaves,  small  pinkish 
flowers,  and  oblong  fruits  produced  in  clusters  of  three  or  more. 
In  length  these  fruits  are  about  2  inches ;  in  color  and  in  general 
character  they  resemble  tomatoes,  to  which  they  are,  of  course, 
closely  related.  "It  has  become  thoroughly  established  in 
many  hill  gardens,"  writes  H.  F.  Macmillan  of  the  tree-tomato 
in  Ceylon,  "and  is  commonly  grown  about  Nuwara  Eliya  for 
market.  The  egg-shaped  and  smooth-skinned  fruit,  produced 


MISCELLANEOUS  FRUITS 


453 


in  great  abundance  and  in  hanging  clusters  at  the  ends  of  the 
branches,  is  in  season  almost  throughout  the  year,  but  chiefly 
from  March  to  May.  At  first  greenish  purple,  it  changes  in 
ripening  to  reddish  yel- 
low. The  subacid  and 
succulent  fruits  are  re- 
freshing and  agreeable 
when  eaten  raw,  but 
their  chief  use  is  for 
stewing;  they  may  also 
be  made  into  jam  or 
preserve.  The  tree  is 
a  quick  grower,  and 
commences  to  bear  fruit 
when  about  two  years 
old,  remaining  produc- 
tive for  several  years." 

It  has  been  found  in 
California  that  the 
species  withstands  sev- 
eral degrees  of  frost. 
It  may  be  killed  back 
to  the  large  limbs  by 
a  temperature  of  26°  to 
28°  above  zero,  but  it 
promptly  recovers.  In 
Mexico  and  Central 
America,  where  it  is 

known  as  tomate,  it  is  cultivated  by  the  Indians  at  elevations 
of  4000  to  8000  feet.  It  likes  a  rich  loamy  soil  and  grows  best 
when  abundantly  irrigated.  It  does  not  require  a  high  degree 
of  atmospheric  humidity. 

Propagation  is  effected  by  means  of  seeds  which  germinate 
readily  and  develop  rapidly  into  strong  plants. 


FIG.  62.  The  tree-tomato  (Cyphomandra 
betacea),  a  fruit  produced  by  a  half -woody  shrub 
from  South  America,  closely  resembles  the  to- 
mato in  character,  and  is  useful  in  the  same 
ways  as  the  latter.  (X  i) 


454     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

THE  GENIPA 

(Genipa  americana,  L.) 

In  parts  of  Brazil  and  in  Porto  Rico  the  genipa  is  a  popular 
fruit.  Elsewhere  it  is  of  little  importance.  Outside  of  its 
native  area,  which  is  considered  to  be  northeastern  South 
America  and  the  West  Indies,  it  is  indeed  scarcely  known. 

When  well  grown  the  tree  is  stately  and  handsome  in  appear- 
ance. It  reaches  a  height  of  60  feet  or  more,  and  has  a  straight, 
slender  trunk  branching  10  or  15  feet  above  the  ground.  The 
leaves  are  oblong-obovate  in  form,  entire  or  dentate,  dark  green 
in  color,  and  about  a  foot  long.  The  flowers,  which  in  Brazil 
are  produced  in  November,  are  small,  and  light  yellow  in  color. 
The  fruits  are  the  size  of  an  orange,  broadly  oval  to  spherical 
in  form,  and  russet-brown.  After  being  picked  they  are  not 
ready  to  be  eaten  until  they  have  softened  and  are  bordering 
on  decay.  Beneath  the  membranous  skin  is  a  thin  layer  of 
granular  flesh,  and  within  this  a  mass  of  soft  brownish  pulp  in 
which  numerous  small  compressed  seeds  are  embedded.  The 
flavor  is  characteristic  and  very  pronounced ;  it  may  be  likened 
to  that  of  dried  apples,  but  is  stronger,  and  the  aroma  is  more 
penetrating. 

The  genipa,  known  in  Brazil  as  genipapo,  in  Porto  Rico  as 
jagua,  and  in  the  British  West  Indies  as  genipap  and  mar- 
malade-box, is  eaten  fresh,  and  used  to  prepare  an  alcoholic 
beverage  known  as  licor  de  genipapo.  A  refreshing  drink 
known  as  genipapada  is  also  made  from  it,  and,  when  green 
it  furnishes  a  dye  used  by  some  of  the  Brazilian  Indians  in 
tattooing. 

In  its  climatic  requirements  the  tree  is  tropical.  It  is  not 
known  to  have  been  grown  in  California  or  Florida,  although 
it  might  succeed  in  the  southern  part  of  the  latter  state.  It 
prefers  a  humid  atmosphere  and  a  deep  rich  loamy  soil  con- 
taining plenty  of  moisture.  Propagation  is  usually  by  seeds, 


MISCELLANEOUS  FRUITS  455 

which  are  easily  germinated.  P.  J.  Wester,  who  has  experi- 
mented with  the  tree  in  the  Philippines,  finds  that  it  can  be 
shield-budded  in  the  same  manner  as  the  avocado.  He  says: 
"Use  mature,  bluish-green,  smooth,  non-petioled  budwood; 
cut  the  buds  about  an  inch  and  a  half  long;  age  of  stock  at 
point  of  insertion  of  bud  unimportant."  By  utilizing  this 
method  of  propagation  it  will  be  possible  to  perpetuate  choice 
varieties  which  originate  as  chance  seedlings. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Much  of  the  literature  on  tropical  fruits  exists  in  the  form 
of  bulletins  and  brief  articles  in  the  horticultural  press.  Refer- 
ence has  been  made  in  the  text  of  this  work  to  the  most  im- 
portant. 

The  more  extensive  works  containing  information  on  the 
history,  cultivation,  varieties,  pests  and  diseases  of  tropical 
fruits  are  listed  below.  An  asterisk  is  placed  before  those  which 
will  be  found  particularly  useful  by  the  tropical  horticulturist 
or  fruit-grower. 

BALLOU,  H.  A.,  Insect  Pests  of  the  Lesser  Antilles.  Pamphlet  No.  71 
of  the  Imperial  Department  of  Agriculture  for  the  West  Indies. 
Barbados.  1912. 

BENSON,  ALBERT  H.,  Fruits  of  Queensland.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture and  Stock,  Brisbane.  1911. 

*CAPUS,  G.,  and  Bois,  D.,  Les  Produits  Coloniaux,  Origine,  Produc- 
tion, Commerce.  Librairie  Armand  Colin.  Paris.  1912. 

CLUTE,  ROBERT  L.,  Practical  Lessons  in  Tropical  Agriculture,  Book  1. 
The  World  Book  Co.,  Yonkers-on-Hudson,  N.Y.  and  Manila, 
P.  I.  1914. 

*CooK,  MELVILLE  T.,  The  Diseases  of  Tropical  Plants.  Macmillan 
and  Co.,  Ltd.,  London.  1913. 

*CooK,  O.  F.,  and  COLLINS,  G.  N.,  Economic  Plants  of  Porto  Rico. 
Contributions  from  the  United  States  National  Herbarium,  vol. 
VIII,  pt.  2.  Government  Printing  Office,  Washington.  1903. 

DECANDOLLE,  ALPHONSE,  Origin  of  Cultivated  Plants.  2d  ed.  In- 
ternational Scientific  Series.  Kegan  Paul,  Trench,  Triibner  and 
Co.,  Ltd.,  London.  1909. 


456     MANUAL  OF  TROPICAL  AND  SUBTROPICAL  FRUITS 

*EssiG,  E.  O.,  Injurious  and  Beneficial  Insects  of  California,  2d  ed. 

State    Commission    of    Horticulture,     Sacramento,     California. 

1915. 
*FENZI,  E.  0.,  Frutti  Tropicali  e  Semitropicali  (esclusi  gli  Agrumi). 

Institute  Agricolo  Coloniale  Italiano,  Firenze.     1915. 
FIBMINGER,   THOMAS  A.   C.,  Manual  of  Gardening  for  Bengal  and 

Upper  India.     Barnham,  Hill  and  Co.,  Calcutta.     1869. 
HALDANE,  R.  C.,  Subtropical  Cultivations  and  Climates,  a  Handy 

Book  for  Planters,  Colonists,  and  Settlers.     William  Blackwood 

and  Sons,  Edinburgh  and  London.     1886. 
*HUBERT,  PAUL,  Fruits  des  Pays  Chauds,  tome  1.     H.  Dunod  et  E. 

Pinat,  Paris.     1912. 

IKED  A,  T.,  The  Fruit  Culture  in  Japan.    Seibido,  Tokyo.    Without  date. 
JUMELLE,  HENRI,  Les  Cultures  Coloniales,  Legumes  et  Fruits.     2d  ed. 

Librairie  J.  B.  Bailliere  et  fils,  Paris.     1913. 

*MACMILLAN,  H.  F.,  A  Handbook  of  Tropical  Gardening  and  Plant- 
ing, with  special  reference  to  Ceylon.     2d  ed.     H.  W.  Cave  and 

Co.,  Colombo,  Ceylon.     1914. 
MAXWELL-LEFROY,  H.,  Indian  Insect  Life,  a  Manual  of  the  Insects 

of  the  Plains.     Thacker,  Spink  and  Co.,  Calcutta  and  Simla.    1909. 
PIERCE,  W.  DWIGHT,  A  Manual  of  Dangerous  Insects  Likely  to  be 

Introduced  into  the  United  States  through  Importations.     Office 

of  the  Secretary,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.     Gov- 
ernment Printing  Office,  Washington.     1917. 
*PITTIER,  H.,  Ensayo  sobre  las  Plantas  Usuales  de  Costa  Rica.     H.  L. 

and  J.  B.  McQueen,  Inc.,  Washington,  D.  C.      1908. 
*POPENOE,  PAUL  B.,  Date  Growing  in  the  Old  World  and  the  New. 

West  India  Gardens,  Altadena,  California.     1913. 
REASONER,  P.  W.,  and  KLEE,  W.  G.,  Report  on  the  Condition  of 

Tropical  and  Semi-tropical  Fruits  in  the  United  States  in  1887. 

Bulletin  1,  Division  of  Pomology,  United  States  Department  of 

Agriculture,  Washington.     1891. 
RIBERA  GOMEZ,  D.  EMILIO,  Manual  sobre  Arboles  Frutales,  Escrito 

especialmente    para    America.     Garnier    Hermanos,    Paris.     No 

date. 
RIVIERE,  CH.,  and  LECQ,  H.,  Cultures  du  Midi,  de  1'Algerie,  et  de  la 

Tunisie.     J.  B.  Bailliere  et  fils,  Paris.     1906. 
*ROEDING,  GEORGE  C.,  Roeding's  Fruit  Growers'  Guide.     Published 

by  the  author,  Fresno,  California.     1919. 
*SAFFORD,  W.  E.,  The  Useful  Plants  of  the  Island  of  Guam,  with  an 

Introductory  Account  of  the  Physical  Features  and  Natural  History 

of  the  Island,  of  the  Character  and  History  of  its  People,  and  of  their 

Agriculture.     Contributions   from    the   United    States   National 

Herbarium,  vol.  IX.     Government  Printing  Office,  Washington. 

1905. 


PLATE  XXIV.     Upper,  the  mangosteen ;  lower,  the  durian. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  457 

*SAUVAIGO,  £MILE,  Les  Cultures  sur  le  Littoral  de  la  Mediterranee ; 
Provence,  Ligurie,  Algerie.  2d  ed.  Librairie  J.  B.  Bailliere 
et  fils,  Paris.  1913. 

VON  MUELLER,  FERDINAND,  Select  Extra-Tropical  Plants  Readily 
Eligible  for  Industrial  Culture  or  Naturalization.  American 
edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  George  S.  Davis,  Detroit,  Michigan. 
1884. 

*WATT,  SIR  GEORGE,  The  Commercial  Products  of  India,  being  an 
abridgment  of  "  The  Dictionary  of  the  Economic  Products  of 
India."  E.  P.  Dutton  and  Co.,  New  York.  1908. 

*WESTER,  P.  J.,  Plant  Propagation  in  the  Tropics.  Bulletin  32  of 
the  Bureau  of  Agriculture,  Manila,  P.  I.  1916. 

WICKSON,  EDWARD  J.,  The  California  Fruits  and  How  to  Grow  Them. 
The  Pacific  Rural  Press,  San  Francisco,  California.  1910. 

WILCOX,  E.  V.,  Tropical  Agriculture,  the  Climate,  Soils,  Cultural 
Methods,  Crops,  Live  Stock,  Commercial  Importance  and  Oppor- 
tunities of  the  Tropics.  D.  Appleton  and  Co.,  New  York  and 
London.  1916. 

WILDER,  GERRIT  P.,  Fruits  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  Revised  ed. 
The  Hawaiian  Gazette  Co.,  Ltd.,  Honolulu.  1911. 

*WOODROW,  G.  MARSHALL,  Gardening  in  India,  5th  ed.  Printed  at  the 
Education  Society's  Press,  Byculla,  Bombay.  1889. 

WOODROW,  G.  MARSHALL,  The  Mango:  Its  Culture  and  Varieties. 
Alexander  Gardener,  Paisley.  1904. 

YULE,  SIR  HENRY,  and  BURNELL,  ARTHUR  COKE,  Hobson-Jobson ; 
being  a  glossary  of  Anglo-Indian  colloquial  words  and  phrases, 
etymological,  historical,  geographical  and  discursive.  New 
edition,  edited  by  William  Crooke.  J.  Murray,  London.  1903. 


INDEX 


ababai,  228. 
abacate,  19. 

Abbevillea  Fendiana,  310. 
Aberia  caffra,  442. 

Gardnerii,  444. 
abi,  349. 
abiu,  349. 

abrico  do  Para,  402. 
abricot  de  Saint  Domingue,  402. 
Abu-1  Fazl-i-'Allami,  88. 
acajou,  noix  de,  150. 
acaju,  149. 

Achradelpha  mammosa,  341. 
Achras  mammosa,  341. 

Sapota,  334. 
acosta,  16. 

Advance  loquat,  263,  265. 
advogado,  19. 
Afoos  mango,  142. 
aguacate,  15. 
ahuacate,  17. 
Akbar,  emperor,  79,  87. 
akee,  330. 
albecata,  17. 
albero  del  pane,  411. 
Alcocer,  Gabriel,  270. 
Allahabad  guava,  279. 
Allen,  W.  J.,  243. 
alligator-apple,  164,  192. 

pear,  17. 
Alphonse  group  of  mangos,  140. 

mango,  91,  92,  108,  126. 
am,  84. 

amatungula,  436,  437. 
amba,  87. 

ambarella,  154,  155. 
ambatjang,  82. 
ambchur,  94. 
ambeh,  87. 

Amblyrrhinus  poricollis  on  lite  hi, 
ambosi,  94. 
ambsath,  94. 
amburan,  87. 


324. 


American  Pomological  Society,  7. 

Amlni  mango,  124,  126,  127,  140,  141. 

Amiri  mango,  141. 

Amir  Khusrau,  79,  88. 

am-khushk,  94. 

am-ki-chhitta,  94. 

Amlasi  pomegranate,  382. 

amra,  85. 

amrapesi,  94. 

Amri  date,  219. 

amrud,  275. 

anab,  385. 

Anacardiaceae,  81. 

Anacardium  occidentals,  81,  146. 

anar,  377. 

butterfly  on  pomegranate,  382. 

caterpillar  on  loquat,  264. 
Anastrepha  on  guava,  279. 

fratercidus  on  mango,  130. 

ludens  on  mango,  130,  on  sapodilla, 

339. 

'anba,  87. 

Andre,  Edouard,  292,  295,  299. 
Andre  feijoa,  299. 
aniba,  87. 
Annona  biflora,  180. 

Cherimola,  161. 

cinerea,  180. 

diversifolia,  188. 

Forskahlii,  180. 

glabra,  163,  171,  176,  191. 

laurifolia,  192. 

longiflora,  192. 

macrocarpa,  163. 

montana,  192. 

muricata,  182. 

palustris,  192. 

purpurea,  184,  193. 

reticulata,  163, 164, 165, 171, 176, 186. 

scleroderma,  193. 

squamosa,  177. 

suavissima,  164. 

tesiudinea,  194. 

tripetala,  164. 


459 


460 


INDEX 


anon,  176. 

anona  blanca,  180,  190. 

colorada,  187. 

de  dedos  pintados,  176. 

del  monte,  194. 

picuda,  176. 
anone,  164. 
anthracnose  on  loquat,  263. 

on -mango,  121,  128. 
antipolo,  411. 
aoacatl,  16. 
Aphis  pomi  on  loquat,  264. 

green  apple,  on  loquat,  264. 
Apoos  mango,  142. 
apple,  alligator,  164. 

bell,  248. 

custard,  164. 

kai,  441. 

kei,  441. 

malay,  309. 

mammee,  402. 

mango,  135. 

mountain,  309. 

Otaheite,  156,  309. 

pond,  177,  191. 

rose,  291,  305. 

star,  344. 

sugar,  177. 
araca,  285. 

da  praia,  281. 

do  Para,  285. 

guacu,  275. 

vermelho,  281. 

Arbela  tetraonis  on  litchi,  324. 
arbol  del  pan,  411. 
arbre  &  pain,  411. 
Arbuthnot  mango,  91. 
Ar chips  postvittuanus  on  litchi,  325. 
Arduina  bispinosa,  439. 

grandiflora,  437. 
Aristoclesia  esculenta,  404. 
arrak,  202,  216. 
Artocarpus  communis,  406. 

incisa,  411. 

integra,  417. 

integrifolia,  414. 

(KJoratissima,  420. 
arvore  do  pao,  411. 
Ascherasi  date,  220. 
Asharasi  date,  219,  220. 
Asimina  triloba,  161,  173,  193. 


Aspidiotus  on  guava,  278. 

on  mango,  132. 

destructor  on  papaya,  239. 

perniciosus  on  loquat,  264. 
Aswad  pomegranate,  382. 
ata,  179,  180. 
ate,  179. 
atemoya,  177. 
atte,  180. 

Augustus,  J.  C.,  394. 
Aulacaspis     miranda     on     cherimoya, 

175. 
Averrhoa  Bilimbi,  431. 

Carambola,  428. 
avigato,  17. 
avocado,  budding  of,  41. 

climate  and  soil  suited  to,  23. 

cultivation  of,  30. 

grafting  of,  49. 

history  of,  14. 

pests  and  diseases  of,  58. 

propagation  of,  40. 

pruning  of,  38. 

races  and  varieties,  65. 

seedling,  40. 
avocat,  19. 
avocato,  17. 
ayer-ayer,  427. 

B 

Baber,  Sultan,  87. 

bachang,  82. 

Back,  E.  A.,  291. 

Bacillus  amylovorus  on  loquat,  262. 

mangiferce  on  mango,  129. 
bacury-pary,  405. 
Bailey,  L.  H.,  357,  362. 
Baker,  C.  F.,  vi,  4. 
bakupari,  404,  405. 
bakuri,  403. 
balimbing,  430,  432. 
Ballou,  H.  A.,  455. 
Banchore  mango,  91. 

.of  Dhiren  mango,  91. 
Baramassia  mango,  124. 
barbadine,  248. 
Barber,  H.  S.,  60. 
Barnhart,  P.  O.,  327. 
Barrett,  O.  W.,  425. 
Batocera  rubra  on  jackfruit,  419. 


INDEX 


461 


tryoni  on  loquat,  264. 

tryoni  on  mango,  130. 
Baum,  Henry  E.,  408. 
batino,  82. 
Beagles,  R.  L.,  387. 
Beccari,  O.,  199. 
Beck,  Herbert,  91. 
Bedana  litchi;  325. 
Belgrave,  W.  N.  C.,  301. 
bell-apple,  248. 
Belling,  John,  109. 
Bennett  mango,  120,  141. 
Benson,  Albert  H.,  254,  455. 
Bephrata  cubensis  on  cherimoya,  175. 
ber,  385. 
Berg,  Otto,  281. 
Besson  feijoa,  299. 
bhaduria,  124. 
bibace,  255. 
bilambu,  432. 
bUimbi,  431. 
bilimbines,  430. 
binjai,  82. 
biriba,  194. 
Birkawi  date,  221. 
Birket  al-Hajji  date,  221. 
Biscochuelo  mango,  136. 
biwa,  255. 

Blake,  Sidney  F.,  vii. 
Blakeman  avocado,  8,  73. 
Blanco,  Manuel,  371. 
Bligh,  William,  409. 
Blighia  sapida,  330. 
blight,  pear,  on  loquat,  262. 
blimbee,  432. 
blimbing,  422,  432. 
Blume,  C.  L.,  81,  133. 
Bois,  D.,  455. 
Bombay  mango,  91,  108,  135. 

No.  23  mango,  91. 

No.  24  mango,  91. 
Bonavia,    E.,   v,    108,    313,    316,    320, 

323. 
bonavist     bean     as     cover-crop     for 

mango,  105. 
Bontius,  Jacobus,  390. 
bor,  385. 
borers  on  cherimoya,  175. 

on  date,  217. 
Bowrey,  J.  J.,  331. 
box,  marmalade,  454. 


Boyle,  Harry  H.,  330. 

Brandis,  Dietrich,  86. 

Brazil-cherry,  289. 

Brazilian  guava,  279. 

breadfruit,  406. 

breadnut,  411. 

breiapfel,  336. 

Brewster,  William  N.,  318,  320,  323. 

Britoa  acida,  285. 

brotbaum,  411. 

bulia,  411. 

bullock's-heart,  177,  186. 

bumbum,  82. 

Burnell,  A.  C.,  457. 

Burnette,  F.  H.,  359. 

Burns,  William,  v,  118,  125,  132,  142. 


cabelluda,  310. 
cabeza  de  negro,  193. 
cachiman,  187. 

cceur-de-bceuf,  187. 

epineux,  184. 
caimite,  4,  346. 
caimito,  346. 
caimo,  350. 
caja,  160. 
caja-manga,  156. 
Cajamts  indicus,  33. 
caju,  149. 
cajuada,  150. 
California,      possibility      of      growing 

tropical  fruits  in,  5,  6. 
Calocarpum  mammosum,  340. 

viride,  343. 
Calophyllum  calaba,  398. 

inophyllum,  398. 
Cambodiana  group  of  mangos,  144. 

mango,  98,  120,  124,  127,  133,  144. 
camias,  432. 

Campomanesia  Fenzliana,  311. 
Candolle,  Alphonse  De,  84,  86,   164, 
178,  183,  228,  274,  315,  326,  349, 
376,  392,  416,  455. 
canistel,  347. 
capulasan,  330. 
capulin,  268. 
Capus,  G.,  455. 
Carabao  mango,  93,  134. 
carambola,  428. 


462 


INDEX 


Caricaceae,  225. 

Carica  candamarcensis,  240. 

Papaya,  225. 

querci folia,  241. 
Carissa,  436. 

Arduina,  439. 

Carandas,  439. 

grandiflora,  436. 

Caryoborus  gonagra  on  tamarind,  435. 
Caryophyllus  Jambos,  305. 

malaccensis,  309. 
cas,  283. 
cashew,  81,  146. 
Casimiroa  edulis,  194,  445. 
castanha,  150. 
Cayenne-cherry,  289. 
Cellon,  George  B.,  v,  40,  41,  54,  56. 
Cerasus  Capollin,  268. 
Ceratitis  on  guava,  279. 

capitata  on  avocado,  61. 

on  kaki,  365. 

on  kei-apple,  443. 

on  loquat,  264. 

on  mango,  130. 

on  papaya,  239. 

on  pitanga,  291. 

on  pomegranate,  382. 

on  sapodilla,  339. 
Cereus  triangularis,  451. 
cereza,  268. 

cereza  de  Cayena,  289. 
cerise  carree,  289. 
cerise  de  Cayenne,  289. 
Ceroplastes  on  guava,  278. 

floridensis  on  avocado,  60. 

on  loquat,  264. 

Ceropute  yuccse  on  cherimoya,  175. 
Ceylon-gooseberry,  444. 
chaka,  417. 
chake-baruke,  414. 
chalcid  flies  on  cherimoya,  175. 
Challenge  avocado,  20. 
chamach,  284. 
champada,  184. 

Champagne  loquat,  256,  263,  265,  266. 
champola  de  guanabana,  182. 
chang  chow-ling,  312. 
Chappelow  avocado,  20,  56. 
Charaxes  fabius  on  tamarind,  435. 
Chase,  J.  Smeaton,  vii. 
Chauveaud,  G.  L.,  111. 


cherimolier,  164. 
cherimoya,  161. 
cherry,  Brazil,  289. 

Cayenne,  289. 

Florida,  289. 

Surinam,  289. 
chewing-gum,  335. 
chicle,  335. 
chico,  336. 

mamey,  341. 
chicozapote,  336. 
chiku,  336. 
China  litchi,  325. 
chinini,  11. 
Chino  mango,  136. 
Chionaspis  on  mango,  132. 
chirimoya,  164. 

lisa,  176. 

de  puas,  176. 

de  tetillas,  176. 
Chrysobalanus  Icaco,  271. 
Chrysophyllum  Cainito,  4,  344. 
Chuckchokia  mango,  91. 
Chupadero  mango,  134. 
chuta,  85. 
Cicer     arietinum     as     cover-crop     for 

mango,  105. 
ciruela,  157. 
Cladosporium  citri,  63. 
Clute,  Robert  I.,  455. 
Cobo,  Bernabe,  16. 
Coccus  on  mango,  132. 
cochiztzapotl,  446. 
Cockerell,  T.  D.  A.,  217. 
coco-plum,  271. 
Cocos  australis,  295. 
codlin-moth  on  loquat,  263. 
Colletotrichum  on  avocado,  62. 
gloeosporiodes  on  loquat,  263. 

on  mango,  128. 
Collins,  G.  N.,  v,  17,  32,  72,  96,  136, 

159,  340,  455. 
olo,  411. 

Columbus,  Christopher,  401. 
Condit,  Ira  J.,  v,  257,  258,  261,  262, 

265. 

'onotrachelus  persece  on  avocado,  60. 
Cook,  Captain,  89. 
ook,  O.  F.,  v,  159,  194,  340,  452,455. 
ook,  Melville  T.,  455. 
cork-wood,  192. 


INDEX 


463 


corocSo  de  boi,  187. 

corossol,  184. 

corossolier,  batanl,  192. 

Correa,  M.  Pio,  153,  289. 

Costa,  Christopher  a,  149. 

Costata  kaki,  365,  367. 

cowpeas  as  cover-crop  for  avocado,  33. 

for  mango,  105. 
coyo,  11. 
Cratcegus  guatemalensis,  270. 

mexicana,  269. 

stipulosa,  269. 
creme  de  creole,  403. 
Crotalaria   juncea    as    cover-crop    for 

mango,  105. 
Cryptoblades  aliena,  on  papaya,  239. 

qnidiella  on  pomegranate,  382. 
Cryptophlebia     carpophaga    on    litchi, 
324. 

Mepida  on  litchi,  324. 
Cryptorhynchus   mangiferce  on  mango, 

131. 

Cupania  sapida,  332. 
cura,  18. 
curuba,  249. 

custard-apple,  164,  180,  187,  192. 
Cydia  pomonella  on  loquat,  263. 
Cyphomandra  betacea,  452. 


Dacus  on  guava,  279. 

ferrugineus  on  mango,  130. 
Dampier,  William,  409. 
Daniel,  H.  L.,  396. 
darimba,  377. 
date-palm,  197. 

plum,  356. 
dates,  cultivation  of,  202. 

pests  and  diseases,  216. 

picking  and  packing,  213. 

varieties  and  classification,  218. 

yield  and  seasons,  212. 
datte  muscade,  200. 
Deglet  Nur  date,  200,  215,  220. 
Descourtilz,  Michel  Etienne,  334. 
Devarubria  mango,  91. 
De  Vries,  H.,  109. 
Dicer  a  obscura  on  kaki,  365. 
Dickey  No.  2  avocado,  73. 
Dickinson  avocado,  68,  74. 


Dimocarpus  Longan,  326. 
Dinoderus  distinctus  on  mango,  132. 
Diospyros  chinensis,  356. 

discolor,  373. 

Ebenaster,  370. 

kaki,  353. 

Lotus,  362. 

Roxburghii,  356. 

Schitse,  356. 

virginiana,  353,  362. 
doekoe,  428. 
dogdog,  411. 
Doidge,  Ethel  M.,  129. 
Dolichos    Lablab    as    cover-crop     for 

mango,  105. 
dorian,  424. 
D'Or  mango,  101,  122. 
Dorsett,  P.  H.,  vii. 
Doryalis  caffra,  442. 
Douglas   Bennett's   Alphonse   mango, 

141. 
Dovyalis  caffra,  441. 

hebecarpa,  443. 
dragon,  ceil  de,  326. 
Drummond,    Bruce,     197,    204,    206, 

208,  209. 

Dudhia  litchi,  325. 
dugdug,  411. 
duku,  428. 
duren,  424. 
durian,  421. 
Durio  malaccensis,  424. 

zibethinus,  421. 
durivan,  424. 
duriyan,  424. 


Earle,  F.  S.,  v,  181,  185. 
Early  Red  loquat,  265,  266. 
East,  Hinton,  165,  416. 
eau  de  Creole,  403. 
Edwards,  Bryan,  90. 
Eells  avocado,  77. 
egg-fruit,  348. 
Elceis  guineensis,  330. 
El  Kseba  date,  222. 
Ephestia  cautclla  in  dates,  218. 
erinose  on  litchi,  325. 
Eriobotrya  japonica,  250. 
Eriophyes  on  litchi,  325. 


464 


INDEX 


Espada  mango,  137. 
Essig,  E.  O.,  263,  456. 
Eugenia  brasiliensis,  304. 

Cumini,  305. 

Dombeyi,  303. 

jambolana,  304. 

Jambos,  291,  305. 

Klotzschiana,  307. 

Luschnathiana,  307. 

malaccensis,  308. 

Michelii,  289. 

Pitanga,  289. 

tomentosa,  310. 

uniflora,  285. 

Z/wtoo,  309. 

Euphoria  Longana,  322,  325. 
m,  156. 


Fairchild,    David,    v,   vii,    134,    197, 
234,    253,    264,    383,    386,    391, 
394,  395,  397,  400,  436,  438. 
fan-li-chi,  179. 
Fard  date,  220. 
Fardh  date,  200,  220. 
Farnham,  B.  F.,  91. 
Fawcett,  H.  S.,  65. 
feijoa,  292. 

Feijoa  Sellowiana,  292. 
Fenzi,  E.  O.,  v,  456. 
fig-moth  in  dates,  218. 
Filipino  mango,  134,  135,  136. 
Finger-printed  cherimoya,  176. 
Firminger,    Thomas,    103,    309,    334, 

416,  417,  418,  435,  456. 
Flacourtia  Ramontchi,  439. 
Florida-cherry,  289. 
Florida,   possibility  of  growing  tropi- 
cal fruits  in,  5,  6. 
fly,  white,  on  avocado,  60. 
Foex,  Felix,  174. 
Forbes,  R.  H.,  197. 
Franceschi,   F.,   v,   vi,   92,   270,   288 

293,  445. 

Freeman,  George  F.,  197. 
frost-resistance,  7. 
fruit-fly  on  avocado,  61. 

on  cherimoya,  175. 

on  guava,  279. 

on  kaki,  365. 

on  loquat,  264. 


on  mango,  130. 

on  papaya,  238. 

on  pitanga,  291. 

on  pomegranate,  382. 

on  sapodilla,  339. 

on  soursop,  185. 
fructa  da  condessa,  195. 

do  conde,  179,  180. 
fruta  de  bomba,  229. 
Fuerte  avocado,  20,  21,  45,  58,  66,  68, 

78. 

Fullaway,  D.  F.,  60. 
Fusicladium    dendriticum    on    loquat, 

262. 
Fuyugaki  kaki,  367. 

G 

Gable,  C.  H.,  89,  166,  172,  174. 

Gailey  kaki,  360,  369. 

gajus,  150. 

Gale,  Elbridge,  91. 

Gamble,  Mrs.  R.  E.,  vii. 

Cannes,  J.  G.  de,  393. 

Garcinia  Livingstonei,  399. 

Mangostana,  390. 

morella,  399. 

tinctoria,  399. 

xanthochymus,  395,  399. 
Gay,  Francis,  397. 
genip,  333. 
genipa,  454. 

americana,  454. 
genipap,  454. 
genipapo,  454. 
genipe,  333. 
ghaetsao,  362. 
Ghars  date,  221. 
Gillespie  white  sapote,  448. 
Gloeosporium  on  avocado,  61. 
Glomerella  on  guava,  279. 
goiaba,  275. 
goiabada,  276. 
Gokhale,  V.  N.,  337,  339. 
Gold  Nugget  loquat,  267. 
Golden  date,  219. 

Russet  cherimoya,  175,  176. 

Yellow  loquat,  264. 
Gomez,  Don  Juan  Antonio,  91. 
gooseberry,  Ceylon,  444. 
Gopalbhog  mango,  91. 


INDEX 


465 


goraka-jambo,  289. 
Gore,  H.  C.,  356,  364. 
Governor's  plum,  439. 
goyave,  275. 
Grabham,  M.,  166. 
granada,  377. 
granadilla,  giant,  247. 

purple,  241. 

real,  248. 

Bweet,  245. 

yellow,  248. 
granatapfel,  377. 
granatum,  377. 
grenade,  377. 
grenadine,  377. 
Griffiths,  David,  450. 
Groff,  G.  W.,  318,  322,  325. 
grosse  sapote,  341. 
Groves,  Allen  M.,  439. 
grumichama,  303. 
grumixama,  304. 
guabiroba,  310. 
guacamole,  23. 
guajava,  275. 
guanaba,  184. 
guanabana,  184. 

cimarrona,  192. 

Guatemalan  race  of  avocados,  71. 
guava,  272. 

Brazilian,  284. 

Costa  Rican,  283. 

Guinea,  279. 

lemon,  279. 

Para,  285. 

pear,  279. 

Perico,  279. 

Peruvian,  279. 

strawberry,  279. 
guayaba,  274. 

acida,  284. 

guayabo  del  pais,  294. 
guayabota,  372. 
guayabote,  372. 
Guinea  guava,  279. 
guisaro,  284. 
gulab-jaman,  305. 
Guttiferffi,  390. 


Haak  ip  litchi,  325. 
Habersham  avocado,  73. 
2n 


Hachiya  kaki,  357,  365,  367,  368. 
Haden  mango,  122,  139. 
Hafu  mango,  142. 
Halawi  date,  219,  221. 
Haldane,  R.  C.,  456. 
Halu  pomegranate,  382. 
Harris,  W.,  309,  316,  330,  416. 
Hartless,    A.    C.,    v,    118,    123,    125, 

252,  264,  338,  356. 
Harvey  white  sapote,  448. 
Hawaiian  Sweet  mango,  134. 
Hayani  date,  221. 
heart-rot  of  pomegranate,  382. 
Hehre  feijoa,  299. 
Heilipus  lauri  on  avocado,  60. 

pittieri  on  avocado,  60. 
Heliothrips  hcemorrhoidalis  on  avocado, 

59. 

rubrocinctus  on  avocado,  59. 
rubrocinctus  on  cashew,  152. 
Hernandez,    Francisco,    16,    187,    189, 

447. 

Hess,  W.  E.,  116. 
hicaco,  271. 

Hiern,  William  Philip,  371. 
Higgins,  J.  E.,  v,  89,   104,   115,   134, 

226,    231,    236,    237,    320,    321, 

322,  323,  327. 

Hodgson,  Robert  W.,  379,  380,  381. 
Hole,  R.  S.,  86. 
honeysuckle,  Jamaica,  248. 
Hooker,  Joseph,  85,  311,  424. 
Home,  W.  R.,  65. 
Huber,    Jacques,    14,    148,    194,    228, 

271,  349,  405. 
Hubert,    Paul,     134,     184,    254,    418, 

419,  456. 
Hume,  H.  H.,  vii,  354,  355,  359,  360, 

362,  363,  364,  365,  366,  367. 
Huntington,  Ellsworth,  202. 
Hwen  T'sang,  86. 
Hyakume  kaki,  363,  365,  367,  369. 
hybrid  avocados,  78. 

cherimoyas,  176. 
Hylocereus  undatus,  451. 


Ibn-al-Awam,  382. 
Ibn  Batuta,  87. 
icaco,  271. 


466 


INDEX 


Icerya  on  guava,  278. 

Idiocerus  on  mango,  130. 

Idolothrips  halidaji  on  cashew,  152. 

Ikeda,  T.,  252,  264,  357,  358,  362,  456. 

ilama,  177,  188,  193. 

ilamatzapotl,  190. 

imbu,  152. 

imbuzada,  154. 

India,  lack  of  fruits  in,  2. 

Indian  meal-moth  in  dates,  218. 

injerto,  343. 

lorns,  M.  J.,  236. 

ivy,  poison,  81. 


jaboticaba,  299. 

de  cabinho,  302. 

do  matto,  302. 

de  Sao  Paulo,  302. 

macia,  302. 
jaca,  417. 
jack,  422. 
jackfruit,  184,  414. 
jacque,  417. 
Jaffa,  M.  E.,  20,  255. 
jagua,  454. 
jakfruit,  417. 
jaman,  304. 
jambo,  305. 
jambolan,  304. 
Jambosa  malaccensis,  309. 

vulgaris,  305. 
jambou,  422. 
jambu,  304,  305. 
jamelac,  309. 
jamelongue,  304. 
Japanese  persimmon,  356. 
Java-plum,  304. 
Jew-plum,  156. 
jicaco,  271. 
jobo,  160. 
jocote,  158. 

marafion,  150. 
Johnson,  Fred  N.,  197. 
Johnston,  Bernard,  197. 
Johore  jackfruit,  419. 
Jones,  C.  R.,  131. 
Jones,  Joseph,  393. 
Jordanus,  Friar,  87. 
Josselyn,  P.  R.,  317. 
jujube,  383. 


Julie  mango,  121,  122. 
julnar,  377. 
Jumelle,  Henri,  456. 


Kagdi  Pairi  mango,  142. 

kai-apple,  441. 

kaju,  150. 

kaki,  353. 

kamrakh,  430. 

kamranga,  430. 

kaniste,  348. 

kantaka,  417. 

kanthal,  417. 

Kao  Tsu,  315. 

kapoelasan,  330. 

Karalia  guava,  279. 

karanda,  439. 

karmara,  430. 

Kasbeh  date,  219,  222. 

Kastawi  date,  223. 

kathal,  417. 

Kearney,  Thomas  H.,  197. 

kei-apple,  441. 

Kesba  date,  222. 

Kessebi  date,  222. 

ketembilla,  443. 

Khadhrawi  date,  219,  222. 

Khalaseh  date,  199,  222. 

Khastawi  date,  223. 

Khustawi  date,  222. 

Kingsley,  Charles,  345. 

Kinman,  C.  F.,  v,  97,  106,  126,  136. 

Klee,  W.  G.,  456. 

knepe,  333. 

Knowles  avocado,  26. 

Knuth,  Paul,  242,  248. 

kolo,  411. 

Krome,  W.  J.,  v,  vii,  25,  34,  40,  48, 

51,  54,  63,  254. 
Kulkarni,  L.  B.,  236. 
kurUba,  249. 

Kura-waraka  jackfruit,  419. 
Kusano,  Takeo,  265. 
kuwini,  82. 


La  Forge,  F.  B.,  21. 
laichi,  316. 
Lang  jujube,  389. 


INDEX 


467 


langsat,  426. 

lansa,  427. 

lansat,  422. 

lanseh,  427. 

Lansium  domesticum,  426. 

Ianz6n,  427. 

lanzone,  427. 

lechosa,  229. 

Lecq,  H.,  456. 

leechee,  316. 

lemae,  411. 

lemai,  411. 

Lemaireocereus  griseus,  452. 

queretarensis,  452. 
lemay,  411. 
lemon  guava,  279. 

water,  248. 

Leon,  Pedro  de  Cieza  de,  15. 
lichee,  316. 
lichi,  316. 

licor  de  genipapo,  454. 
lilikoi,  242. 
limao  do  matto,  405. 
lime,  Spanish,  333. 
lingeng,  326. 
Linnaeus,  5. 
Litchi  chevelu,  328. 

chinensis,  312. 

nut,  313. 

Loh  Mai  Chi  litchi,  322,  325. 
Long  Amini  mango,  141. 
long  an,  326. 
longan,  322,  325. 
longyen,  326. 
Idquat,  250. 

-scab,  262. 
lucmo,  351. 
Lucuma  Caimito,  350. 

mammosa,  341. 

nercosa,  347. 

obovata,  351. 

rivicola,  348. 

salicifolio,  350. 
lucumo,  352. 
lu-kuh,  255. 
lukwat,  255. 
Lunan,  John,  90. 
lung  an,  326. 
lychee,  316. 
Lyon  avocado,  52,  68,  74. 

bean  as  cover-crop  for  mango,  105. 


M 

mabolo,  373. 

MacCaughey,  Vaughan,  167,  168, 
179,  184,  187,  303,  308,  410, 
413,  414. 

Macmillan,    H.    F.,     167,     184,     188, 
240,    241,    247,    248,    249,    281, 
288,    309,    311,    328,    336,    346, 
415,  419,  452,  456. 
Maechtlen  white  sapote,  448. 
Majhul  date,  200,  223. 
Maktum  date,  223. 
Malay-apple,  309. 
Malda  mango,  91,  122. 
Malum  punicum,  377. 
mamao,  229. 
mamey,  401. 

Colorado,  341. 

de  Santo  Domingo,  402. 

mango,  136. 

zapote,  341. 

Mammea  americana,  342,  401. 
mammee,  402. 

-apple,  402. 

-sapota,  341. 

Mammilaris  cherimoya,  175. 
mamoncillo,  332. 
Manakhir  date,  223. 
manga  amarilla,  135. 

blanca,  135. 

da  rosa,  137. 

mamey,  136. 

mango,  135. 

monjet,  82. 

pari,  82. 
man-gay,  88. 
mangga,  88. 
manggis,  394. 
Mangifera  altisaima,  82. 

ccesia,  82. 

fcetida,  82. 

indica,  81. 

laurina,  82. 

odor  at  a,  82. 

sylvatica,  82. 

verticillata,  82. 

zeylanica,  82. 
mango  bark-borer,  131. 

bianco,  136. 

botanical  description  of,  81. 


468 


INDEX 


climate  and  soil  suited  to,  95. 

composition  of  fruit,  92. 

cultivation  of,  101. 

distribution  of,  84. 

frost-resistance  of,  98. 

fruit-fly,  130. 

history  of,  79. 

hopper,  130. 

introduction  of  to  U.  S.,  90. 

pests  and  diseases,  128. 

pollination  of,  118. 

propagation  of,  107. 

races  and  varieties,  132. 

seedling,  108. 

shoot  psylla,  131. 

weevil,  131,  132. 
mangophul,  94. 
mangosteen,  390,  422. 
mangotina,  136. 
mangoustan,  394. 
mangrove  annona,  164. 
mangue,  88. 

Manila  mango,  108,  134,  136. 
man-kay,  88. 
manzanilla,  269. 
maracuja  melao,  248. 
marang,  420. 
maranon,  149. 
Maria,  P.  Vicenzo,  177. 
Maries,  Charles,  79,  125,  133,  137. 
Marignolli,  John  de,  87,  414. 
Marin,  Don  Francisco  de  Paula,  304. 
Markham,  Sir  Clements,  161. 
Marlatt  scale  on  date,  217. 
marmalade-box,  454. 

-fruit,  341. 

-plum,  341. 
masa  pan,  411. 
Mason,  Silas  C.,  197. 
Masters,  M.  T.,  435. 
matasano,  194,  446. 
Maxwell-Lefroy,    H.,    130,    131     152 

419,  435,  456. 
McLean's  litchi,  325. 
McMurran,  S.  M.,  128. 
mealy-bug,  avocado,  60. 

citrus,  on  avocado,  60. 
Mediterranean    fruit-fly    on    avocado 
61. 

on  guava,  279. 

on  kaki,  365. 


on  kei-apple,  443. 

on  loquat,  264. 

on  mango,  130. 

on  papaya,  239. 

on  pitanga,  291. 

on  pomegranate,  382. 

on  sapodilla,  339. 
Medjeheul  date,  223. 
Medjool  date,  223. 
medlar,  Japanese,  255. 
Melicocca  bijuga,  332. 
melon  tree,  229. 
melon  zapote,  229. 
Memminger,  Lucien,  150. 
Menakher  date,  223. 
Merrill,  Elmer  D.,  371. 
Mespilus  germanica,  255,  336. 
Mexican  fruit-fly  on  mango,  130. 
Mexican  race  of  avocados,  76. 
Mexico,  origin  of  avocado  in,  14,  15. 
Meyer,     Frank    N.,     252,     257,     316, 

325,  326,  354,  362,  382,  385,  387. 
Michael,  William  H.,  94. 
Miller,  Jacob,  71,  168. 
Mimusops  Kauki,  339. 
Miranda,  Conde  de,  179. 
Mirzapuri  guava,  279. 
mite,  red,  on  papaya,  239. 
mi-tsao,  386. 

Mohur  Thakur  mango,  125. 
mombin,  150. 

red,  157. 

yellow,  159. 
Monceaux,  H.,  393. 
Montgomery,  Charles,  54. 
Moracese,  406. 
Morrow,  J.  E.,  388. 
Moti  Pairi  mango,  142. 
mountain-apple,  309. 

soursop,  192. 
Mucuna     Lyoni     as     cover-crop     for 

mango,  105. 

Mueller,  Ferdinand  von,  457. 
Muhammad  Tughlak  Shah,  79. 
Mulgoba  group  of  mangos,  138. 

mango,  91,  92,   100,   105,   108,   110, 

122,  123,  124,  126,  139. 
Murrieta,  John,  71. 
muscade  date,  200. 
Mu  shing  hong  jujube,  389. 
Myrciaria  cauliflora,  300. 


INDEX 


469 


jaboticaba,  300. 

teneUa,  300. 

trunciflora,  300. 
Myrobolan,  160. 
Myrtacese,  272. 
Myrtle,  downy,  311. 
Myrtus  tomentosa,  311. 

N 

nabk,  385. 
naghzak,  88. 
naseberry,  336. 
Natal-plum,  437. 
neflier  du  Japon,  255. 
Nephelium  lappaceum,  327. 

Litchi,  316. 

Longana,  326. 

mutdbile,  329. 
Nespola  giapponese,  255. 
nispero,  336. 

del  Jap6n,  255. 
noix  d'acajou,  150. 
Northrop  avocado,  77. 
Northrop,  James  H.,  197. 
No.  11  mango,  109,  135. 


ceil  de  dragon,  326. 

ohia,  156,  308. 

Okame  kaki,  364,  365,  367,  369. 

Oliver,  George  W.,  395,  398,  399. 

Opuntia  Ficus-indica,  448. 

megacantha,  448. 
Ormond  kaki,  368. 
Ord,  R.  B.,  19,  168. 
oriental  names,  transliteration  of,  7. 
Orta,  Garcia  de,  87,  432. 
Otaheite-apple,  156,  309. 
Oviedo,    Gonzalo    Hernandez   de,    15, 
183,  273,  334,  401. 


Padero  mango,  134. 
Paheri  mango,  142. 
pahua,  18. 
pahutan,  82. 

mango,  134. 
pai  bibaw,  252,  264. 
Pain  mango,  92, 108, 124, 125, 126, 142. 


pajuil,  149. 
palta,  15,  16. 
panasa,  417. 
pao,  fruta,  411. 
papaja,  229. 
papauce,  190. 
papaw,  193,  228. 
papaya,  225. 

fruit-fly,  238. 

leaf-spot,  239. 

mountain,  240. 
Papayaceae,  225. 
papaye,  229. 

Paper-shell  pomegranate,  383. 
papeya,  228. 
papia,  228. 

Parlatoria  blanchardii  on  date,  217. 
Parroquia  white  sapote,  448. 
Passiflora  ccerulea,  243. 

edulis,  241. 

laurifolia,  248. 

ligularis,  245. 

maHformis,  249. 

quadrangularis,  247. 
Passifloraceae,  225. 
passion-fruit,  242. 
Peace  mango,  135. 
pear,  alligator,  17. 

blight  on  loquat,  262. 

guava,  279. 

Peckholt,  Theodore,  229. 
Peni-waraka  jackfruit,  419. 
pepper- tree,  81. 
pera  do  campo,  307. 
Perez,  George  V.,  167. 
Perico  guava,  279. 
Perina  nuda  on  jackfruit,  419. 
Perrine,  Henry,  19,  91. 
Persea  americana,  11. 

drymifolia,  11. 

gratissima,  11. 

Pittiera,  11. 

Schiedeana,  11. 
persimmon,  Japanese,  356. 

American,  353. 

Peru,  avocado  in  prehistoric,  15. 
Peruvian  guava,  279. 
Phaseolus    aconitifolius    as    cover-crop 
for  mango,  105. 

Mungo    as   cover-crop    for    mango. 
105. 


470 


INDEX 


Philippine  mango,  121,  122. 
Phloeothrips  anacardii  on  cashew,  152. 
Phoenicoccus  marlatti  on  date,  217. 
Phoenix  canariensis,  198. 

dactylifera,  198. 

sylvestris,  198. 
Photinia  japonica,  255. 
Phyllocalyx  Luschnathiana,  308. 

tomeniosus,  310. 
Pico  mango,  134. 
Pierce,  W.  Dwight,  456. 
pigeon  peas  as  cover-crop  for  avocado, 

33. 

Pillans,  E.,  258. 
pina  mango,  136. 
pinha,  180. 
pi-pa,  255. 

Pirie  mango,  91,  142. 
pistachio  nut,  81. 
Pistacia  vera,  81. 
pitahaya,  451. 
pitajaya,  451. 
pitajuia,  451. 
pitalla,  451. 
pitanga,  285. 
pitaya,  451. 
pithaya,  451. 
pitomba,  307. 
Pittier,    Henry,    vii,    246,    335,    341, 

350,  456. 

Placentia  Giant  loquat,  267. 
plant-breeding,     absence    of,    in     the 

tropics,  4. 
plaquemine,  356. 
Platonia  insignis,  398,  403. 
Ploccederus  ruficornis  on  mango,  131. 
Plodia  inter punctella  in  dates,  218. 
Plotheia  celtis  on  litchi,  324. 
plum,  coco,  271. 

date,  356. 

governor's,  439. 

Japanese,  255. 

Java,  304. 

Jew,  156. 

marmalade,  341. 

Natal,  437. 

Spanish,  158. 

Pollock  avocado,  54,  55,  57,  70. 
Polo,  Marco,  432. 
polyembryony  of  mango,  107. 
poma-rosa,  305. 


pomegranate,  375. 

butterfly,  382. 
pomme-cannelle,  180. 

Cythere,  156. 

d' acajou,  150. 

d'or,  249. 

rose,  305. 

pond-apple,  177,  191. 
Popenoe,  F.  O.,  197. 

Paul,  vii,  197,  456. 
posh-te,  193. 
Pouteria  Caimito,  349. 
Pratt,  W.  E.,  424. 
Premier  loquat,  265,  266. 
Proschowsky,  A.  Robertson,  167,  240, 

247,  288. 
proterogyny,  173. 
prune  Myrobolan,  160. 
prunier  d'Espagne,  158. 

rouge,  158. 
Prunus  Capollin,  268. 

Capuli,  268. 

salicifolia,  268. 
Pseudococcus  on  guava,  278. 

citri  on  avocado,  60. 

filamentosus  on  cherimoya,  175. 

nipoe  on  avocado,  60. 
Pseudoparlatoria    ostriata    on    papaya, 

239. 
Psidium  acre,  281. 

Araca,  281. 

aromaticum,  275. 

Cattleianum,  279. 

chinense,  281. 

Friedrichsthalianum,  283. 

Guajava,  272. 

guianense,  275. 

guineense,  275,  284. 

laurifolium,  283. 

littorale,  281. 

lucidum,  281. 

molle,  284. 

pomiferum,  275. 

pyriferum,  275. 

sinense,  281. 

variabile,  281. 

Psylla  cistellata  on  mango,  131. 
Pucciniopsis  caricce,  239. 
Puebla  avocado,  21,  68,  77. 
pulasan,  329. 
pulassan,  330. 


INDEX 


471 


Pulvinaria  on  guava,  278. 

on  mango,  132. 

pyriformis  on  avocado,  60. 
Punicaceae,  375. 
Punica  Granatum,  375. 
Pyrie  mango,  142. 


quauhtzapotl,  187. 
Quayle,  H.  L.f  59. 
Queensland  fruit-fly  on  loquat,  264. 

on  mango,  130. 
quenette,  333. 

R 

race,  definition  of  horticultural,  65. 
Ragawi  pomegranate,  382. 
Rajpuri  mango,  142. 
ramboetan,  328. 
rambotang,  328. 
ramboutan,  328. 
rambustan,  328. 
rambutan,  327,  422. 
ramontchi,  439. 
ramphal,  187. 
R'ars  date,  221. 
Reasoner  Brothers,  v. 
Reasoner,  E.  N.,  319,  430. 
Reasoner,  P.  W.,   91,   151,   180,   188, 
274,    288,    333,    336,    342,    346, 
348,  456. 

Red  mombin,  157. 
Redondo  mango,  136. 
red-spider  on  avocado,  59. 

on  mango,  131. 
Rhamnacese,  375. 
Rhars  date,  221. 
Rheedia  brasttiensis,  405. 

edulis,  405. 

macrophytta,  405. 
Rhodomyrttis  tomentosa,  311. 
Rhua  Toxicodendron,  81. 
Rhyncophorus  on  date,  217. 
Ribera  Gomez,  D.  Emilio,  456. 
Ridley,  D.,  397. 
rima,  411. 
rimmon,  377. 
Riviere,  Ch.,  456. 
Rodrigues,  J.  Barbosa,  289,  404. 
Roeding,    George   C.,    356,   358,   364, 
365,  378,  381,  456. 


Rolfs,  P.  H.,  v,  69,  133. 
RoUinia  deliciosa,  194. 

orthopetala,  194. 
roma,  377. 
roman,  377. 
Rorer,  J.  B.f  129. 
Rose,  J.  N.,  vii,  158. 
rose-apple,  291,  303. 

litchi,  325. 

mango,  137. 
rumman,  377. 
Ryerson,  K.  A.,  298. 


Safari  am,  275. 

Safford,   W.   E.,   v,   vii,    15,   89, 
164,    176,     179,    183,    187, 
192,  430,  431,  456. 
sahagun,  16. 
sahakara,  85. 
Saidi  date,  204,  223. 
Saissetia  on  guava,  278. 

on  mango,  132. 

hemispherica  on  litchi,  324. 

olecB  on  avocado,  60. 

on  feijoa,  299. 

Salazar,  Francisco  Cervantes,  15. 
Salimi  pomegranate,  382. 
San  Chi  litchi,  322. 
Sandersha  group  of  mangos,  143. 

mango,  121,  124,  126,  127,  143. 
Sandoricum  Koetjape,  426. 

indicum,  426. 
San  Jose  scale  on  loquat,  264. 
santol,  426. 
Sapindacese,  312. 
Sapindus  Saponaria,  333. 
sapodilla,  334. 
sapota,  336. 
Sapota  Achras,  337. 

zapotUla,  337. 
Sapotacese,  334. 
sapote,  340. 

black,  370. 

green,  343. 

white,  445. 

yellow,  350. 
sapoti,  336. 
sapotilha,  336. 
sapotille,  336. 


163, 
189, 


472 


INDEX 


saramuya,  180. 

Sauvaigo,  Emile,  358,  362,  457. 

scab,  avocado,  62. 

scale,  black,  on  avocado,  60. 

Florida  wax,  on  loquat,  264. 

insects  on  kaki,  365. 

on  feijoa,  299. 

San  Jose,  on  loquat,  2,64. 

wax,  on  avocado,  60. 

white,  on  avocado,  60. 
Schimper,  A.  F.  W.,  121. 
Schinus  molle,  81. 
Schultz,  H.  F.,  170,  174. 
Sebastian  avocado,  26. 
seeds,  shipment  of  avocado,  42. 
Seemann,  Dr.,  161. 
seso  vegetal,  332. 
Sextus  Papinius,  384. 
sharifa,  180. 

Sharpless  avocado,  21,  68,  74. 
shibukaki,  362. 
shi  tze,  356. 
Simmonds,     Edward,     v,     177,     234, 

338,  438. 

Simmonds  papaya,  239. 
Singapore  mango,  91. 
siniguelas,  158. 
sitaphal,  180. 
Sloane,  Sir  Hans,  17. 
soapberry,  332. 

Solano  avocado  (description  of),  75. 
Solms-Laubach,  Count,  228. 
soncoya,  184,  193. 
Soondershaw  mango,  144. 
soursop,  177,  182. 

mountain,  192. 

Souza,  Gabriel  Soares  de,  148. 
Spanish-lime,  333. 

-plum,  158. 

Ruby  pomegranate,  383. 
Spinks  avocado,  68,  75. 
Spondias,  81. 

cytherea,  155. 

dulcis,  156. 

lutea,  159. 

Mombin,  150,  157. 

purpurea,  158. 

tuber osa,  152. 
star-apple,  344. 
Stenocalyx  brasiliensis,  289,  304. 

Michelii,  289. 


Sternochetus  grams  on  mango,  132. 

mangiferce  on  mango,  131. 
Stevens,  H.  E.,  61. 

Stizolobium    Deeringianum    as    cover- 
crop  for  mango,  105. 
Strasburger,  E.,  109. 
strawberry  guava,  279. 
subtropical  fruits,  definition  of,  6,  7. 
sugar-apple,  177. 
suirsack,  184. 
Sundersha  mango,  144. 
Supsupen  mango,  134. 
Surinam-cherry,  289. 
Su  Tung-po,  312. 
sweet-cup,  248. 
sweetsop,  180. 
Swingle,  Walter  T.,  v,  109,  197,  214, 

315. 
Syzygium  Cumini,  305. 

jambolana,  305. 


Tabirzal  date,  224. 
Tafilalet  date,  200. 
Taft  avocado,  45,  52,  68,  75. 
Taft,  A.  Z.,  168. 

C.  P.,  258,  259,  264,  266. 
tamar-i-Hindi,  434. 
tamarin,  434. 
tamarind,  432. 
tamarindo,  434. 
Tamarindus  indica,  432. 
Tamopan  kaki,  361,  368. 
•Tanaka  loquat,  264,  265,  267. 
Tane-nashi  kaki,  357,  361,  364,  365, 

367,  368. 
Tavares,    J.    S.,    146,    147,    152,    286, 

289,    290,    292,    300,    301,    302, 

303,  416,  417,  431. 
Taylor  avocado,  76. 
Taza  loquat,  264. 
Teixeira,  Pedro,  202. 
tejocote,  269. 
Tetranychus  on  papaya,  239. 

mytilaspidis  on  avocado,  59. 
texaltzapotl,  180. 
texocotl,  270. 

Thalassodes  quadraria  on  litchi,  324. 
Thales  loquat,  256,  265,  267. 
thamar,  434. 


INDEX 


473 


theonti,  311. 
Theophrastus,  415. 

Thompson,    Alice    R.,    92,    151,    155, 
160,     169,     180,    230,    290,    306, 
309,    317,    326,    346,    378,    412, 
417,  430,  434,  437. 
Theory  date,  224. 
thrips  on  avocado,  59. 

on  cashew,  152. 

on  mango,  131. 
Thuri  date,  204,  219,  224. 
ti-es,  348. 
tipolo,  411. 
tliltzapotl,  371. 
tomato,  453. 
tomato,  tree,  452. 
Totapari  mango,  92,  144. 
Tourney,  J.  W.,  450. 
Tozotrypana  curvicanda,  238. 
Trabut,    L.,    v,    167,    253,    264,    265, 

288,  294. 

Trapp   avocado,    21,   24,   25,   26,   35, 
37,   40,   53,   54,   55,   56,   57,   58, 
63,  68,  70. 
tree-melon,  229. 
tree-tomato,  452. 

Trialeurodes  floridensis  on  avocado,  60. 
Trioza  koebeli  on  avocado,  61. 
Triumph  kaki,  357,  365,  367,  369. 
tropical  fruits,  definition  of,  6,  7. 
tropics,  scarcity  of  fruits  in,  2,  3. 
Trypetidae  on  cherimoya,  175. 

on  mango,  130. 

on  sapodilla,  339. 
tsao,  385. 
tsjaka,  417. 

Tsjakapa  jackfruit,  419. 
Tsuri  date,  224. 

Tsuru  kaki,  355,  357,  364,  365,  369. 
Tuberculate  cherimoya,  176. 
tuna,  448. 

turpentine  mango,  135. 
Turton,  Harry,  393. 
Twain,  Mark,  161. 
tzapotl,  341,  445. 
tzicozapotl,  336. 


uajuru,  271. 
'ulu,  411. 
'ulu-ma'a,  411. 


L 


umbonate  cherimoya,  176. 

umkokolo,  441. 

unnab,  385. 

Urbina,  Manuel,  371. 

uto,  411. 

uto-sore,  411. 

uvalha,  309. 


Valle,  P.  della,  87. 
Van  Hermann,  H.  A.,  v,  116. 
Varaka  jackfruit,  419. 
Vasconcellos,  Simam  de,  147. 
Vega,  Garcilasso  de  la,  16. 
Vela  jackfmit,  419. 

velvet  bean  as  cover-crop  for  avocado, 
33. 

for  mango,  105. 

vetch,  as  cover-crop  for  avocado,  33. 
vi,  156. 

Vicia  atropurpurea,  33. 
Victor  loquat,  263,  265,  267. 
Vienna  rules  of  nomenclature,  8. 
Vigna     Catjang     as     cover-crop     for 

mango,  105. 
Vinson,  A.  E.,  197. 
Virachola  isocrates  on  loquat,  264. 

on  pomegranate,  382. 

lima  on  pomegranate,  382. 
Vitellaria  mammosa,  341. 
Viviand-Morel,  M.,  299. 


W 

Wahi  date,  224. 

Waldin  avocado,  35,  71. 

Wallace,  Alfred  Russel,  422. 

Waller,  Edmund,  226. 

Waraka  jackfruit,  419. 

water-lemon,  248. 

Watt,  Rev.  D.  G.,  91. 

Watt,  George,  93,  477. 

Webber,  H.  J.,  25,  65,  109,  277. 

weevil,  avocado,  60. 

Wehmer,  Carl,  337,  394. 

Werckle,  Carlos,  170. 

Wester,  P.  J.,  v,  91,  105,  134,  152, 
156,  159,  171,  172,  173,  176, 
181,  186,  188,  192,  232,  233, 
277,  306,  373,  399,  413,  420, 


474 


INDEX 


421,    425,    426,    427,    428,    431, 
432,  435,  443,  444,  455,  457. 

West  Indian  mango,  135. 
race  of  avocados,  69. 

Whedon,  J.  T.,  58. 

wi,  156. 

Wickson,  Edward  J.,  457. 

Wilcox,  E.  V.,  457. 

wild  cherimoya,  192. 

Wilder,  Gerrit  P.,  336,  393,  457. 

Willis,  J.  C.,  96. 

Wonderful  pomegranate,  383. 

Woodrow,  G.  Marshall,  91,  101,  103, 
104,  105,  112,  124,  181,  457. 

Wright,  W.  H.,  395. 

Wu  Ti,  305. 


xalxocotl,  274. 
Ximenez,  Francisco,  16. 
xocotl,  158. 


ya,  336. 
yambo,  305. 
yds,  11. 


yash-tul,  344. 

Yeddo-ichi  kaki,  363,  365,  367,  369. 

Yemon  kaki,  355,  364,  365,  367,  370. 

yongt'o,  430. 

Yu  jujube,  389. 

Yule,  Sir  Henry,  457. 


Zadie  date,  224. 

Zahidi  date,  215,  219,  224 

zapote  agrio,  184. 

amarillo,  351. 

bianco,  446. 

borracho,  351. 

negro,  372. 

prieto,  372. 
zapotillo,  336. 
Zehedi  date,  224. 
Zengi  kaki,  357,  363,  365,  370. 
Zignoella    garcinece     on     mangosteen, 

401. 
Zizyphus,  384. 

Jujuba,  384. 

mauritiana,  384. 

saliva,  384. 

vulgaris,  384. 


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